Vol. 4 No. 1 (2026)

Open Access

Article

Article ID: 3892

Corrosion mitigation of mild steel in simulated concrete pore solution using henna seed extract as a green inhibitor

by Pooviah Shanthy, Murugesan Sindhu, Susai Rajendran, Abdulhameed Al-Hashem

Building Engineering, Vol.4, No.1, 2026;

Corrosion in concrete structures presents a significant challenge that affects their safety, durability, and structural integrity, primarily due to environmental factors and chemical reactions. An aqueous extract derived from henna seed has been utilized to mitigate the corrosion of mild steel in a simulated concrete pore solution (SCPS). A study on polarization has been conducted to assess the corrosion protection properties of henna seed extract (HSE). The addition of henna seed extract leads to an enhancement in linear polarization resistance. Conversely, there is a decrease in the corrosion current. In the presence of henna seed extract, the linear polarisation resistance of mild steel in simulated concrete pore solution increases from 750 Ohm cm² to 1198 Ohm cm². The corrosion current value decreases from 6.719 × 10⁻⁵ A/cm² to 2.925 × 10⁻⁵ A/cm². The surface morphology of the protective film has been examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It has been noted that when henna seed extract is present, the surface of the protective film exhibits a smoother texture. These findings confirm the corrosion protection offered by henna seed extract. An additional investigation into contact angle measurements indicates that when henna seed extract is present, the protective film developed on the surface of mild steel, which is immersed in simulated concrete pore solution (SCPS), exhibits a comparatively smoother texture. The resistance to corrosion is enhanced. This aligns with the findings from the electrochemical investigation, specifically the polarization study, as well as the images obtained from scanning electron microscopy (SEM). These results could have implications in the field of concrete technology.

Open Access

Article

Article ID: 3952

Life-cycle assessment and multi-objective optimization of natural-insulated envelopes across Iranian climates

by Peyman Naghipour, Afshin Naghipour, Tarana Bakirova

Building Engineering, Vol.4, No.1, 2026;

The building envelope plays a pivotal role in achieving sustainable energy performance, particularly in regions characterized by extreme climatic variations. This study investigates the holistic optimization of building envelopes—comprising walls, roofs, floors, and fenestrations—by integrating natural insulation materials with passive and smart design strategies. The research aims to enhance energy efficiency, reduce total CO₂ emissions, and improve occupants’ thermal comfort across four representative low-income climatic regions of Iran: Yazd (hot-arid), Tabriz (cold-dry), Rasht (temperate-humid), and Bandar Abbas (hot-humid). Addressing the existing research gap, the study extends beyond operational energy analysis by incorporating a full life cycle assessment (LCA), including embodied energy and life cycle carbon footprint. Multi-objective optimization (using NSGA-II) was performed to minimize annual energy demand, life-cycle cost (LCC), and environmental impact simultaneously. Building performance simulations were conducted using IES-VE and EnergyPlus, while LCA and economic analyses were executed via SimaPro and HOMER Pro. The results indicate that hybrid natural insulations-particularly straw–hemp composites-combined with passive strategies (dynamic shading, natural ventilation, and thermal mass enhancement) can reduce total CO₂ emissions by 42–58% compared with conventional materials. Also, the results demonstrate that the optimized design solutions can reduce annual energy consumption by approximately 25–35% compared to the baseline design, while achieving a 15–25% reduction in life-cycle costs over the building lifespan. Additionally, orientation-sensitive optimization improved thermal comfort indices (Predicted Mean Vote—PMV, Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied—PPD) throughout the year. The developed predictive models based on machine learning (Random Forest) exhibited robust accuracy in estimating energy consumption. The findings provide an integrated framework for sustainable, low-cost, and climate-responsive envelope design, supporting the transition toward net-zero energy buildings in developing regions.

Open Access

Article

Article ID: 4023

Assessing the effectiveness of building envelope materials on existing buildings in the sub-tropical climate: A case study in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

by Roshani Subedi, Khem N. Poudyal, Nawraj Bhattarai

Building Engineering, Vol.4, No.1, 2026;

This paper is on the effect of building envelopes on thermal performance in the sub-tropical climate in Nepal. In today’s urbanized world, concrete buildings are growing and therefore, the greenery is decreasing significantly. Building and construction being one of the driving engines of the worldwide economy, it has become a main concern of sustainability. The Kathmandu Valley is the most densely populated urban area of Nepal, and energy availability has been a major problem in the Valley. Energy modeling exercise was performed through a simulation tool, Ecotect software, to calculate the energy performance of a residential building in the Kathmandu Valley. To attain these objectives, the necessary features of the building site were studied. The building was simulated by creating different building envelopes as scenario cases. Overall comparison was performed to elucidate the pros and cons and show the possibilities for modification of the building to adapt to climate change. The building with materials such as double brick cavity walls and double-glazed timber windows was found to be more effective in comparison to brick walls with cement plaster. The current study has shown that the building's annual energy demand could be reduced by up to 37.5% in the best-selected scenario.

Open Access

Article

Article ID: 4029

Adobe versus concrete: Passive energy analysis in residential buildings in the hot and arid climate of Kashan city

by Peyman Naghipour, Afshin Naghipour, Tarana Bakirova, Farazin Soltani Gerd Faramarzi, Faraneh Soltani Gerd Faramarzi

Building Engineering, Vol.4, No.1, 2026;

Hot-arid regions, such as central Iran, face extreme summer temperatures exceeding 40 °C and mild winters, creating significant cooling and heating demands in residential buildings. Modern construction in these climates predominantly uses reinforced concrete, which has high thermal conductivity and limited capacity to moderate indoor temperatures. In contrast, adobe-a traditional, locally sourced material with high thermal mass-has been largely overlooked in contemporary housing despite its passive climate-adaptive properties. Previous research has rarely conducted year-round, simulation-based comparisons of adobe and concrete in such environments, leaving a clear knowledge gap. This study hypothesises that adobe can substantially reduce annual energy loads compared to concrete in a representative hot-arid climate. A novelty of this work is the integration of full-year OpenStudio simulations, validated by DesignBuilder (R² = 0.999), using real meteorological data from Kashan and a standardised residential prototype. Results show that adobe reduced total annual thermal loads by 74–78% (≈7325 kWh) and lowered peak summer cooling demand by 81.7% (August) as well as winter heating demand by ~80% (January). Optimal performance was achieved at a 45 cm wall thickness, balancing thermal benefit and material use. Over 10 years, these energy savings translate into an operational cost reduction of about 5860 USD and avoid approximately 16,750 kg CO₂/year, supporting adobe as a low-carbon, cost-effective option for hot-arid housing.

Open Access

Article

Article ID: 4117

Drone-based pothole detection and sustainable repairs

by Sameer Jain

Building Engineering, Vol.4, No.1, 2026;

Potholes are one of the major challenges affecting road safety, vehicle performance, and infrastructure maintenance worldwide. Conventional pothole detection and repair methods are often time-consuming, labour-intensive, and inefficient in large road networks. Recent advances in drone technology and geospatial data processing provide new opportunities for rapid and accurate road condition assessment. However, limited research integrates drone-based detection with sustainable repair material evaluation. This study proposes a drone-based pothole detection framework combined with a sustainability-oriented repair analysis. A UAV survey was conducted using the DJI Mavic 3 Enterprise to capture high-resolution images of road surfaces. The collected imagery was processed using photogrammetry software such as Agisoft Metashape and QGIS to generate orthomosaic images, digital elevation models (DEM), and pothole measurements. The calculated pothole area and volume values obtained through software were compared with manual measurements, showing a high accuracy range of approximately 97–99%. In addition, a comparative cost analysis of conventional repair materials and sustainable alternatives, including coconut shell charcoal, rice husk ash, HDPE plastic, and demolished aggregates, was performed. The results indicate that sustainable materials can reduce repair costs by up to 13.43%, while drone-based surveys significantly reduce inspection time and improve monitoring efficiency. The proposed integrated approach demonstrates the potential of combining UAV-based infrastructure monitoring with environmentally sustainable repair strategies. This framework can support smarter road maintenance planning and contribute to sustainable infrastructure management.

Open Access

Article

Article ID: 4020

A biocultural pathway to carbon-negative schools: A neurocognitive-validated framework integrating heritage preservation and energy innovation

by Yue Lyu

Building Engineering, Vol.4, No.1, 2026;

Semi-urban public buildings face a critical challenge in reconciling deep decarbonization with biocultural heritage preservation, a dilemma exacerbated by rural grid fragility and behavioral barriers. This study pioneers a neurocognitive-cultural entropy framework (Locality-Small Scale-Flexibility (LSF)) to resolve this conflict. The LSF establishes unprecedented synergies by robotically replicating Ming-era masonry, achieving minimal cultural entropy deviation (ΔH = 0.03 bits, p < 0.001)—a metric quantifying information loss in heritage feature transfer, where lower values indicate higher authenticity—and high structural similarity (Structural Similarity Index Measure (SSIM) = 0.93). The framework delivers dual breakthroughs: (1) Biocultural-Energy Transduction: Heritage-optimized photon vectors elevate building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) yield by 11.3%, while evoking a 21.3% increase in amygdala activation (t(31) = 4.2) that correlates with a 62.1 ± 0.8% reduction in lighting energy use intensity (EUI) (r = 0.82). (2) Systemic Non-Additivity: A synergy factor of Γ = −35.9 ± 0.07% (p < 0.001) integrates AI-driven renewables (1.29 GWh·yr⁻¹, exceeding national thresholds by 61 ± 3%) and circular material systems (60.5 ± 2.0% embodied carbon reduction via 1,200 t of industrial byproducts). Deployed at China's first GB/T 51350-2019 Class I campus (18,700 m²), the LSF attains a net-negative carbon intensity of −14.24 kgCO₂e·m⁻²·yr⁻¹. This performance surpasses the Brattørkaia Powerhouse (−8.7 kgCO₂e·m⁻²·yr⁻¹) in grid resilience and the buildings at the National University of Singapore (NUS SDE) 1&3 in EUI reduction (85.3% vs. 80%). With a transferability index of Ψ = 0.89 across humid subtropical zones, this work provides a replicable blueprint for 1.2 million semi-urban schools globally, transforming cultural landscapes into carbon-negative civilization catalysts.

Open Access

Review

Article ID: 4064

Investigation of net-zero buildings: Architectural features and their efficacy in lowering pollution and energy consumption

by Ejiga Opaluwa, Fatima Vatsa Haruna, Tenigbade Odu, Opeyemi Adeola Asaju, Patrick Chukwuemeke Uwajeh, Ololade Ibidolapo Olawepo, Job Momoh, Ibrahim Umar

Building Engineering, Vol.4, No.1, 2026;

The pressing global need for sustainable development has amplified the architectural emphasis on net-zero buildings, which aim to align energy use with renewable energy production while reducing environmental harm. This research examines the design elements of net-zero buildings and assesses their effectiveness in lowering pollution and energy use. Utilizing the literature review method, the study compiles academic literature, case studies, and technical documents to pinpoint essential design strategies such as passive ventilation, optimal building orientation, high-performance insulation, renewable energy integration, water recycling systems, and the incorporation of biophilic design principles. In addition, the review incorporates broader considerations related to advanced material innovations, smart‑building controls, and climate‑responsive architectural practices. The review also provides a more detailed discussion of performance outcome of these strategies across different climatic and urban settings, bringing to light both their success and the challenges associated with their implementation. The findings demonstrate that net‑zero buildings substantially reduce operational energy requirements and contribute to lowering greenhouse gas emissions; however, issues such as economic feasibility, long‑term maintenance demands, and context‑specific adaptability continue to pose barriers. Furthermore, the study emphasizes the importance of multidisciplinary collaboration and continuous performance monitoring to ensure sustained efficiency. The research concludes by underscoring the need for integrated design processes, supportive policies, and ongoing technological advancements to achieve scalable, resilient, and environmentally responsible net‑zero developments.