Modeling and optimization of a grid-connected PV–wind–fuel cell hybrid system with hydrogen storage

Youssef  El Baqqal; Mohammed  Ferfra; Souleymane Kientega

doi:10.59400/esc4186

Modeling and optimization of a grid-connected PV–wind–fuel cell hybrid system with hydrogen storage

Youssef El Baqqal
Department of Electrical Engineering, Mohammadia School of Engineers, Mohammed V University, Rabat B.P. 765, Morocco
Mohammed Ferfra
Department of Electrical Engineering, Mohammadia School of Engineers, Mohammed V University, Rabat B.P. 765, Morocco
Souleymane Kientega
Department of Electrical Engineering, Mohammadia School of Engineers, Mohammed V University, Rabat B.P. 765, Morocco

Article ID: 4186

Keywords: hybrid renewable energy system; hydrogen storage; grid-connected system; particle swarm optimization; energy management; techno-economic analysis; grid stability

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive techno-economic and environmental assessment of a grid-connected hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) integrating photovoltaic (PV), wind turbine (WT), and fuel cell (FC) technologies for a case study in Dakhla, Morocco. A detailed modeling framework is developed, including renewable generation, electrolyzer operation, hydrogen storage, and fuel cell conversion, combined with an energy management strategy to coordinate power flows between system components and the utility grid. The system design is formulated as a constrained optimization problem aiming to minimize the total annual cost while incorporating reliability and grid stability requirements through a penalty-based approach. The optimization is performed using a particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm to evaluate three system configurations: PV–WT–FC, WT–FC, and PV–FC. The results show that the PV–WT–FC configuration provides the best overall performance, achieving a total annual cost of 186,957 USD, a levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of 0.1472 USD/kWh, and a high renewable energy fraction (REF) of 88.32%. This configuration also ensures excellent reliability (LPSP = 0%) and stable grid operation. In contrast, the WT–FC configuration achieves a lower LCOE of 0.1164 USD/kWh when considering component costs alone; however, it results in significant grid instability, leading to a high penalty cost of 700,588 USD and reduced overall feasibility. Similarly, the PV–FC configuration shows a higher total annual cost (255,425 USD) and lower renewable penetration (60%), making it less competitive. These findings highlight the importance of integrating grid stability and reliability constraints within the optimization framework. The proposed approach effectively identifies balanced system configurations that ensure cost efficiency, high renewable penetration, and stable operation, confirming the robustness and practical applicability of the PV–WT–FC system for sustainable energy deployment.

Published

2026-05-22

How to Cite

El Baqqal, Y., Ferfra, M., & Kientega, S. (2026). Modeling and optimization of a grid-connected PV–wind–fuel cell hybrid system with hydrogen storage. Energy Storage and Conversion, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.59400/esc4186

Download Citation

Issue

Vol. 4 No. 2 (2026): In Progress

Section

Article

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

References

[1]Sohaib M, Majeed A, Liu J, et al. The role of renewable energy in mitigating carbon emissions: Insights from China’s energy consumption patterns. Energy Strategy Reviews. 2025; 61: 101860. doi: 10.1016/j.esr.2025.101860

[2]Singh S, Slowik A, Kanwar N, et al. Techno-economic feasibility analysis of grid-connected microgrid design by using a modified multi-strategy fusion artificial bee colony algorithm. Energies. 2021; 14(1): 190. doi: 10.3390/en14010190

[3]Bade SO, Tomomewo OS, Meenakshisundaram A, et al. Multi-Criteria Optimization of a Hybrid Renewable Energy System Using Particle Swarm Optimization for Optimal Sizing and Performance Evaluation. Clean Technologies. 2025; 7(1), 23. doi: 10.3390/cleantechnol7010023

[4]Iqbal MN, Bhatti AR, Farhan M, et al. Optimizing the design of hybrid renewable energy systems considering electric vehicle loading. Electric Power Systems Research. 2026; 252: 112452. doi: 10.1016/j.epsr.2025.112452

[5]Taghavi M, Lee CJ. Development of a novel hydrogen liquefaction structure based on liquefied natural gas regasification operations and solid oxide fuel cell: Exergy and economic analyses. Fuel. 2025; 384: 133826. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2024.133826

[6]Falope T, Lao L, Hanak D, et al. Hybrid energy system integration and management for solar energy: A review. Energy Conversion and Management: X. 2024; 21: 100527. doi: 10.1016/j.ecmx.2024.100527

[7]Alharbi AM, Ali ZM, Diab AAZ. Comparative techno-economic optimization of microgrid configurations using hybrid battery–hydrogen storage: NEOM case study, Saudi Arabia. 2025; 20(9): e0326050. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0326050

[8]Duan F, Eslami M, Okati M, et al. Hybrid stochastic and robust optimization of a hybrid system with fuel cell for building electrification using an improved arithmetic optimization algorithm. Scientific Reports. 2025; 15(1): 1779. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-86074-z

[9]Taghavi M, Yoon HJ, Choi JU, et al. Innovative Structure of a Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Process by Mixed Fluid Cascade Using Solar Renewable Energy, Photovoltaic Panels (PV), and Absorption Refrigeration System. In: Manenti F, Reklaitis GV (editors). Computer Aided Chemical Engineering. Elsevier; 2024. 53, pp. 2071–2076. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-443-28824-1.50346-X

[10]Taghavi M, Lee CJ. Development of novel hydrogen liquefaction structures based on waste heat recovery in diffusion-absorption refrigeration and power generation units. Energy Conversion and Management. 2024; 302: 118056. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2023.118056

[11]Agoundedemba M, Kim CK, Kim HG, et al. Modelling and optimization of microgrid with combined genetic algorithm and model predictive control of PV/Wind/FC/battery energy systems. Energy Reports. 2025; 13: 238–255. doi: 10.1016/j.egyr.2024.12.008

[12]Liao W, Xiong Q, Chen Z, et al. Stochastic sizing and energy management of a hybrid energy system using cloud model and improved Walrus optimizer for China regions. Scientific Reports. 2025; 15(1): 21205. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-03212-3

[13]Al-Shetwi AQ. Feasibility study on optimal hybrid renewable energy systems in northern Saudi Arabia: Technical, economic, and environmental assessments. International Journal of Ambient Energy. 2025; 46(1): 2540583. doi: 10.1080/01430750.2025.2540583

[14]Duan F, Basem A, Sawaran Singh NS. Stochastic designing of a hybrid system with hydrogen energy management based-fuel cell using machine learning and improved arithmetic optimization algorithm for building electrification. Energy. 2025; 334: 137509. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2025.137509

[15]Sultan HM, Menesy AS, Kamel S, et al. An improved artificial ecosystem optimization algorithm for optimal configuration of a hybrid PV/WT/FC energy system. Alexandria Engineering Journal. 2021; 60(1): 1001–1025. doi: 10.1016/j.aej.2020.10.027

[16]Yasmin R, Nabi MN, Rashid F, et al. Solar, Wind, Hydrogen, and Bioenergy-Based Hybrid System for Off-Grid Remote Locations: Techno-Economic and Environmental Analysis. Clean Technologies. 2025; 7(2): 36.

[17]Coban HH. A multiscale approach to optimize off-grid hybrid renewable energy systems for sustainable rural electrification: Economic evaluation and design. Energy Strategy Reviews. 2024; 55: 101527. doi: 10.1016/j.esr.2024.101527

[18]Drici M, Houabes M, Salawudeen AT, et al. Optimizing Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems for Isolated Applications: A Modified Smell Agent Approach. Eng. 2025; 6(6): 120. doi: 10.3390/eng6060120

[19]Alharthi YZ. An Analysis of Hybrid Renewable Energy-Based Hydrogen Production and Power Supply for Off-Grid Systems. Processes. 2024; 12(6): 1201. doi: 10.3390/pr12061201

[20]Serat Z, Danishmal M, Mohammad Mohammadi F. Optimizing hybrid PV/Wind and grid systems for sustainable energy solutions at the university campus: Economic, environmental, and sensitivity analysis. Energy Conversion and Management: X. 2024; 24: 100691. doi: 10.1016/j.ecmx.2024.100691

[21]Azam ME, Anika ST, Ali MF, et al. Evaluating Renewable–Hydrogen Hybrid Microgrids for Remote Island Electrification in Bangladesh. In: Proceedings of the 2026 5th International Conference on Electrical, Computer & Telecommunication Engineering (ICECTE); 29–31 January 2026; Rajshahi, Bangladesh. pp. 1–6. doi: 10.1109/ICECTE69292.2026.11429221

[22]Ermiş S, Taşdemir O, Al-Hajj R. Multi-objective techno-economic and environmental optimization of hydrogen-based hybrid renewable energy system using osprey optimization algorithm. Scientific Reports. 2026. doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-45185-x

[23]Abdoulaye MA, Waita S, Wekesa C.W, et al. Multi-criteria optimal sizing and analysis of PV/wind/fuel cell/battery/diesel generator for rural electrification: A case study in Chad. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development. 2024; 13(3): 491–507. doi: 10.61435/ijred.2024.60169

[24]Turcios LJ, Torres-Madroñero JL, Cárdenas LM, et al. Assessment of Hybrid Renewable Energy System: A Particle Swarm Optimization Approach to Power Demand Profile and Generation Management. Energies. 2025; 18(23): 6141. doi: 10.3390/en18236141

[25]Mohapatra S, Kaliyaperumal D, Porselvi T, et al. Optimal sizing of hybrid renewable energy systems relying on the black winged kite algorithm for performance evaluation. Scientific Reports. 2025; 15(1): 20568. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-06442-7

[26]González Cusa Y, Hidalgo Suárez J, Moya Rodríguez JL, et al. Optimal Sizing of an Off-Grid Hybrid Energy System with Metaheuristics and Meteorological Forecasting Based on Wavelet Transform and Long Short-Term Memory Networks. Energies. 2025; 18(20): 5371. doi: 10.3390/en18205371

[27]AL Dawsari SA, Anayi F, Packianather M. Optimizing a hybrid off-grid photovoltaic/wind/fuel cell energy system using mantis search algorithm. Energy Conversion and Management: X. 2025; 27: 101209. doi: 10.1016/j.ecmx.2025.101209

[28]Bade SO, Tomomewo OS. Optimizing a hybrid wind-solar-biomass system with battery and hydrogen storage using generic algorithm-particle swarm optimization for performance assessment. Cleaner Energy Systems. 2024; 9: 100157. doi: 10.1016/j.cles.2024.100157

[29]El-Sattar HA, Kamel S, Sultan HM, et al. Optimal design of Photovoltaic, Biomass, Fuel Cell, Hydrogen Tank units and Electrolyzer hybrid system for a remote area in Egypt. Energy Reports. 2022; 8: 9506–9527. doi: 10.1016/j.egyr.2022.07.060

[30]Güven AF, Yörükeren N, Tag-Eldin E, et al. Multi-Objective Optimization of an Islanded Green Energy System Utilizing Sophisticated Hybrid Metaheuristic Approach. IEEE Access. 2023; 11: 103044–103068. doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3296589

[31]Wang Y, He X, Liu Q, et al. Economic and technical analysis of an HRES (Hybrid Renewable Energy System) comprising wind, PV, and fuel cells using an improved subtraction-average-based optimizer. Heliyon. 2024; 10(12): e32712. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32712

[32]Mohamed MA, Shadoul M, Yousef H, et al. Multi-agent based optimal sizing of hybrid renewable energy systems and their significance in sustainable energy development. Energy Reports. 2024; 12: 4830–4853. doi: 10.1016/j.egyr.2024.10.051

[33]Xu L, Ruan X, Mao C, et al. An Improved Optimal Sizing Method for Wind-Solar-Battery Hybrid Power System. IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy. 2013; 4(3): 774–785. doi: 10.1109/TSTE.2012.2228509

[34]Güven AF, Yörükeren N. A comparative study on hybrid GA-PSO performance for stand-alone hybrid energy systems optimization. Sigma Journal of Engineering and Natural Sciences. 2024; 42(5): 1410–1438.

[35]Singh A, Sharma A, Rajput S, et al. An Investigation on Hybrid Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithms for Parameter Optimization of PV Cells. Electronics. 2022; 11(6): 909. doi: 10.3390/electronics11060909

[36]Bouaouda A, Sayouti Y. Design optimization of a multi-source renewable energy system using a novel method based on selective ensemble learning. Procedia Computer Science. 2024; 236: 111–118. doi: 10.1016/j.procs.2024.05.011

[37]Sahab M, Emrani A, Sanjari MJ, et al. Optimal design and energy management of a hybrid PV-Wind system with hydrogen and gravity energy storage: An off-grid sustainable alternative for coal power in Morocco. Renewable Energy Focus. 2026; 56: 100775. doi: 10.1016/j.ref.2025.100775

[38]Elaouzy Y, El Fadar A, Achkari OB. Assessing the 3E performance of multiple energy supply scenarios based on photovoltaic, wind turbine, battery and hydrogen systems. Journal of Energy Storage. 2024; 99: 113378. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2024.113378

[39]El Hassani S, Oueslati F, Horma O, et al. Techno-economic feasibility and performance analysis of an islanded hybrid renewable energy system with hydrogen storage in Morocco. Journal of Energy Storage. 2023; 68: 107853. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2023.107853

Editor-in-Chief

Prof. Xiaohu Yang

Xi'an Jiaotong University, China

eISSN

3029-2778

Publication Frequency

Quarterly

Indexing

Scopus

CAS

Scilit Database (Switzerland)

J-Gate

All the publications will be archived by the PKP Preservation Network for long-term electronic preservation.

Authors are encouraged to self-archive the final version of their published articles into institutional repositories (such as those listed in the Directory of Open Access Repositories).

Authors are also encouraged to use the final PDF version published on the website of Academic Publishing.

About the Publisher

Academic Publishing insists on taking academic exchange and publication as the main line, carrying out comprehensive management based on science and technology, and fully exploring excellent international publishing resources. Within 5 years, it will form a strategic framework and scale with science (S), technology (T), medicine (M), education (E), and humanities and arts (H) as the main publishing fields. Academic Publishing is headquartered in Singapore and based in Malaysia, with the United States and China providing the main scientific and academic resources. At the same time, it has established long-term good cooperative relations with other publishing companies, scientific research communities, and academic organizations in more than a dozen countries and regions. Academic Publishing uses English and Chinese as its main publishing languages, mainly publishing books, journals, and conference papers in print and online. The vast majority of publications follow the international open access policy, providing stable and long-term quality and professional publications. With the joint efforts of the expert team and our professional editorial team, our publications will gradually be indexed by international databases in stages to provide convenient and professional retrieval for various scholars. At the same time, manuscripts we accept will be subject to the peer review principle, and cutting-edge and innovative research articles will be preferentially accepted for peer reference and discussion. All kinds of our publications are welcome for peer to contribute, access, and download.

more

Volume Arrangement

2026

2025

2024

2023

Featured Articles

Nitrided Copper-Iron Composite Oxides Derived from Layered Double Hydroxides for Enhanced Carbon Dioxide Electroreduction to Methane and Formic Acid

The reduction of carbon dioxide to valuable chemical products is a promising solution to address carbon balance and energy issues. Herein, amorphous nitrided copper-iron oxides are prepared by gas-phase nitriding of Cu Fe-layered double hydroxide precursor s with urea as nitrogen source. Amorphous materials are more likely to generate defect vacancies during the reaction process, and these vacancies can function as active sites for catalytic reactions. Therefore, the obtained materials show high activity for CO 2 electroreduction to methane and formic acid, achieving a total Faraday efficiency of 74.7% at −0.7 V vs RHE and exhibiting a continuous 10 h durability in the H-cell. The uniformly distributed Cu + sites act as active sites by losing electrons to activate CO 2 . During the CO 2 electroreduction , CO 2 is converted to *COOH via proton-electron coupling, *COOH combines directly with a proton in solution to produce the HCOOH product, and the other part of *COOH undergoes a protonated dehydration process to form the *CHO intermediate which dehydrates again to form CH 4 . This study provides a new approach for designing CO 2 electroreduction catalysts.

AlZnO magnetron sputtered thin film for photovoltaic application

Aluminum zinc oxide (AZO) is a nontoxic and a low-cost material that finds application as a transparent conducting electrode in photovoltaic devices. In this study the (direct current) DC magnetron sputtering of AZO films is carried out at different deposition times of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 min’s at room temperature and it’s structural, optical, electrical and morphological properties are studied for its use as a front contact for thin film solar cell application. The structural study suggests that the preferred orientation of grains along (002) plane having hexagonal structure and the optical and the electrical studies suggest that the films show an average transmission of 70% and a resistivity of the order of 10 -4 Ωcm. On the other hand, the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images suggest the formation of packed grains having a homogeneous surface. Moreover in order to study the optoelectronic properties of prepared samples, the electronic and optical calculations of the AZO are performed by the first-principles calculations using density functional theory (DFT).

Investigation of self-excited induction generator for supporting domestic loads and its extension to a microgrid

This study provides a technical and financial analysis for the incorporation of a microgrid structure with a wind energy conversion system for producing electricity. This study’s primary aim is to provide solutions for issues that arise when isolated induction generators are employed with microgrids. A closed-loop smart electronic load controller is used to regulate the loads in the system that are supplied by the generation. A switched variable capacitor bank is used to supply reactive power initially during a voltage dip at varying winds and loads to sustain the voltage profile. Additionally, a simple voltage control loop-based controller for the generator side converter maintains the voltage at a steady level. Using HOMER software, an economic study of the suggested wind-based microgrid structure is also presented. A laboratory experimental setup is used to support the MATLAB/Simulink study of the proposed method and its control. The findings back the feasibility of implementing the suggested plan in grid-isolated regions for supplying critical loads.

Research progress on ZnO/MoS₂/rGO ternary photocatalysts

Energy shortage and environmental pollution have become one of the important global issues, and semiconductor photocatalytic technology is considered as one of the effective means to solve these problems. As a new and efficient green material, ZnO has attracted wide attention. ZnO is widely used in the field of photocatalysis due to its non-toxicity, low cost, environmental friendliness, adjustable band gap, high electron density, and chemical stability. However, the recombination of photogenerated charge carriers in ZnO hinders its practical application and lowers the utilization efficiency of visible light. On the other hand, molybdenum disulfide/reduced graphene oxide (MoS₂ /rGO), as a binary non-precious metal co-catalyst, has a larger specific surface area, suitable band gap width, and visible light response capability compared to single-phase graphene co-catalyst. Therefore, introducing MoS₂ /rGO co-catalyst into the ZnO system can provide more active sites, reduce the probability of photogenerated charge carrier recombination, and improve the utilization efficiency of visible light. In this review, we summarize the hydrothermal synthesis methods for preparing this highly demanded nanocomposite material, including one-step and stepwise methods. Subsequently, we elaborate on the mechanism of enhancing light absorption and achieving efficient electron-hole separation behavior in the ternary system heterojunction structure during the photocatalytic process. Due to its significant advantages, this ternary system heterojunction structure has been widely applied in the field of photocatalysis, including applications such as pollutant degradation, sterilization, and water splitting.

Wind power forecasting technologies: A review

This study addresses the critical role of wind power forecasting in ensuring stable and reliable power system operations. Wind Power Forecasting is critical for the efficient operation of plant, time scheduling, and it’s balancing of power generation with grid integration systems. Due to its dependency on dynamic climatic conditions and associated factors, accurate wind power forecasting is challenging. The research delves into various aspects, including input data, input selection techniques, data pre-processing, and forecasting methods, with the aim of motivating researchers to design highly efficient online/offline models on weather-based data. The overarching goal is to enhance the reliability and stability of power systems while optimizing energy resource utilization. The analysis reveals that hybrid models offer more accurate results, highlighting their significance in the current era. This study investigates different Wind Power Forecasting (WPF) models from existing literature, focusing on input variables, time horizons, climatic conditions, pre-processing techniques, and sample sizes that affect model accuracy. It covers statistical models like ARMA and ARIMA, along with AI techniques including Deep Learning (DL), Machine Learning (ML), and neural networks, to estimate wind power.

fmos