The effectiveness of psychological interventions for parents of school-aged children with typical development: A review of current research evidence
Abstract
Parenting stress tends to adversely affect the psychological well-being of parents and children. This systematic review examines psychological interventions specifically designed to reduce stress in parents of typically developing children aged 6 to 12 years. We reviewed 16 interventions from 2000 to 2025 regarding their effectiveness in reducing parental stress and ameliorating parental well-being. Study quality was assessed using the Delphi score questionnaire. A random-effects meta-analysis of 15 studies revealed a significant reduction in parental stress (Hedges’ g = 0.363, 95% CI [0.226, 0.499], p < 0.001), with even stronger effects at follow-up (g = 0.866) across six studies. Intervention components significantly moderated outcomes (Qₘ = 50.880, p < 0.001), with programs combining behavioral strategies and CBT (β = −2.038, p < 0.001), as well as CBT combined with relational elements (β = −2.999, p < 0.001), reporting the greatest benefit. A leave-one-out sensitivity analysis confirmed the robustness of findings. However, substantial attrition was observed, particularly among highly stressed parents and fathers, depicting the need for more inclusive and adaptive delivery protocols. While a vast array of interventions was deemed effective, the type and coherence of components appeared more critical than the quantity of modules. Future research should examine mechanisms of change, address paternal participation, parent attrition rates, and explore further the role of couple dynamics. Parenting interventions hold promise not only for reducing stress but also for strengthening parent-child relationships and promoting long-term family well-being.
Copyright (c) 2025 Author(s)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
[1]Ajilchi, B., Borjali, A., & Janbozorgi, M. (2011). The Impact of a Parenting Skills Training Program on Stressed Mothers and Their Children’s Self-Esteem Level. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 316–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.063
[2]Ajilchi, B., & Kargar, F. R. (2013). The Impact of a Parenting Skills Training Program on Stressed Mothers and their Children’s Depression Level. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 84, 450–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.583
[3]Álvarez, C., & Szücs, D. (2023). Maternal cognitions and cognitive, behavior and emotional development in middle childhood. Current Research in Behavioral Sciences, 4, 100098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crbeha.2023.100098
[4]Baker, S., & Sanders, M. R. (2017). Predictors of Program Use and Child and Parent Outcomes of A Brief Online Parenting Intervention. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 48(5), 807–817. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-016-0706-8
[5]Barlow, J., Coren, E., & Stewart-Brown, S. (2002). Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of parenting programmes in improving maternal psychosocial health. The British Journal of General Practice: The journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners, 52(476), 223–233.
[6]Barlow, J., Smailagic, N., Huband, N., et al. (2014). Group-based parent training programmes for improving parental psychosocial health. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (5), CD002020. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002020.pub4
[7]Barroso, N. E., Mendez, L., Graziano, P. A., & Bagner, D. M. (2018). Parenting Stress through the Lens of Different Clinical Groups: a Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 46(3), 449–461. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-017-0313-6
[8]Beckmeyer, J. J., Markham, M. S., & Troilo, J. (2022). Domains of ongoing communication between former spouses: Associations with parenting stress and children’s post-divorce well-being. Journal of Family Issues, 43(6), 1579–1600. https://doi.org/10. 1177/0192513X211029264
[9]Boughton, K. L., & Lumley, M. N. (2011). Parent prediction of child mood and emotional resilience: the role of parental responsiveness and psychological control. Depression Research and Treatment, 2011(1), 375398.
[10]Bratton, S. C., Ray, D., Rhine, T., & Jones, L. (2005). ‘The Efficacy of Play Therapy with Children: A Meta-Analytic Review of Treatment Outcomes’. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36(4), 376–390.
[11]Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2010). A basic introduction to fixed-effect and random-effects models for meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods, 1(2), 97–111. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.12
[12]Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The Bioecological Model of Human Development. In: Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development, 6th ed. John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp. 793–828.
[13]Buchanan-Pascall, S., Melvin, G. A., Gordon, M. S., & Gray, K. M. (2023). Evaluating the Effect of Parent-Child Interactive Groups in a School-Based Parent Training Program: Parenting Behavior, Parenting Stress and Sense of Competence. Child psychiatry and human development, 54(3), 692–710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-021-01276-6
[14]Burgdorf, V., Szabó, M., & Abbott, M. J. (2019). The Effect of Mindfulness Interventions for Parents on Parenting Stress and Youth Psychological Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1336. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01336
[15]Caporali, C., Pisoni, C., Gasparini, L., et al. (2020). A global perspective on parental stress in the neonatal intensive care unit: a meta-analytic study. Journal of perinatology : official journal of the California Perinatal Association, 40(12), 1739–1752. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41372-020-00798-6
[16]Cheng, A. W. Y., & Lai, C. Y. Y. (2023). Parental stress in families of children with special educational needs: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1198302
[17]Cheung, J. C. S., Leung, G. S. M., Lam, Y. M., & Chan, J. W. T. (2022). Emotionally focused therapy group intervention for parents of primary school students with parenting stress: an evaluation study in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development, 33(1), 64–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/02185385.2022.2092770
[18]Buchanan-Pascall, S., Melvin, G. A., Gordon, M. S., & Gray, K. M. (2023). Evaluating the Effect of Parent-Child Interactive Groups in a School-Based Parent Training Program: Parenting Behavior, Parenting Stress and Sense of Competence. Child psychiatry and human development, 54(3), 692–710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-021-01276-6
[19]Chiang, S. C., & Bai, S. (2023). Bidirectional associations between parenting stress and child psychopathology: The moderating role of maternal affection. Development and Psychopathology, 36(4), 1810-1820.
[20]Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, 2nd ed. L. Erlbaum Associates.
[21]Colalillo, S., & Johnston, C. (2016). Parenting cognition and affective outcomes following parent management training: A systematic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 19(3), 216–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-016-0208-z
[22]Costantini, I., López-López, J. A., Caldwell, D., et al. (2023). Early parenting interventions to prevent internalising problems in children and adolescents: a global systematic review and network meta-analysis. BMJ Mental Health, 26(1), e300811. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjment-2023-300811
[23]Costa, I. S., Barbosa-Ducharne, M., Palacios, J., & Soares, J. (2020). Predictors of parenting stress in Portuguese adolescents adoptive parents. Child & Family Social Work, 25, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12756
[24]Crnic, K. A., Gaze, C., & Hoffman, C. (2005), Cumulative parenting stress across the preschool period: relations to maternal parenting and child behaviour at age 5. Infant and Child Development: An International Journal of Research and Practice, 14, 117-132. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.384
[25]Dekkers, T. J., Hornstra, R., van der Oord, et al. (2022). Meta-analysis: Which Components of Parent Training Work for Children With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder?. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 61(4), 478–494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2021.06.015
[26]Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ, 315(7109), 629–634.
[27]Feliciana, J. B. (2005). The impact of participation in a parent training program on maternal sense of competency and stress in urban African-American mothers (Publication No. 3184866) [Doctoral dissertation, Howard University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.
[28]Fernández-Sogorb, A., Sanmartín, R., Vicent, M., & Gonzálvez, C. (2021). Identifying Profiles of Anxiety in Late Childhood and Exploring Their Relationship with School-Based Distress. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(3), 948-963. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18030948
[29]Fisak, B., Gallegos-Guajardo, J., Verreynne, M., & Barrett, P. (2018). The results of a targeted open trial of the Fun FRIENDS combined with a concurrent parent-based intervention. Mental Health & Prevention, 10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhp.2018.03.001
[30]Forehand, R., Jones, D. J., & Parent, J. (2013). Behavioral parenting interventions for child disruptive behaviors and anxiety: what’s different and what’s the same. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(1), 133–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.10.010
[31]Furlong, M., McGilloway, S., Bywater, T., et al. (2013). Cochrane Review: Behavioural and cognitive-behavioural group-based parenting programmes for early-onset conduct problems in children aged 3 to 12 years (Review). Evidence‐Based Child Health: A Cochrane Review Journal, 8(2), 318-692. https://doi.org/10.1002/ebch.1905
[32]Hautmann, C., Dose, C., Duda-Kirchhof, K., et al. (2018). Behavioral Versus Nonbehavioral Guided Self-Help for Parents of Children with Externalizing Disorders in a Randomized Controlled Trial. Behavior therapy, 49(6), 951–965. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2018.02.002
[33]Havighurst, S. S., Radovini, A., Hao, B., & Kehoe, C. E. (2020). Emotion-focused parenting interventions for prevention and treatment of child and adolescent mental health problems: a review of recent literature. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 33(6), 586–601. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000647
[34]Javier, J. R., Coffey, D. M., Schrager S. M., et al. (2016). Parenting Intervention for Prevention of Behavioral Problems in Elementary School-Age Filipino-American Children: A Pilot Study in Churches. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 37(9), 737–745. https://doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0000000000000342
[35]Jeong, J., Sullivan, E. F., & McCann, J. K. (2023). Effectiveness of father-inclusive interventions on maternal, paternal, couples, and early child outcomes in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Social Science & Medicine, 328, 115971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115971
[36]Kohlhoff, J., Lieneman, C., Cibralic, S., et al. (2022). Attachment-Based Parenting Interventions and Evidence of Changes in Toddler Attachment Patterns: An Overview. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 25(4), 737–753. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-022-00405-4
[37]Kochanova, K., Pittman, L. D., & McNeela, L. (2022). Parenting Stress and Child Externalizing and Internalizing Problems Among Low-Income Families: Exploring Transactional Associations. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 53(1), 76–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-020-01115-0
[38]Lau, A. S., Fung, J. J., Ho, L. Y., et al. (2011). Parent Training with High-Risk Immigrant Chinese Families: A Pilot Group Randomized Trial Yielding Practice-Based Evidence. Behavior Therapy, 42(3), 413-426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2010.11.001
[39]Li, H. C. W., Chan, S. S., Mak, Y. W., & Lam, T. H. (2013). Effectiveness of a parental training programme in enhancing the parent–child relationship and reducing harsh parenting practices and parental stress in preparing children for their transition to primary school: a randomised controlled trial. BMC Public Health, 13, 1079. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-1079
[40]Ling, J., Zahry, N. R., & Liu, C. C. (2021). Stress management interventions among socioeconomically disadvantaged parents: A meta-analysis and moderation analysis. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 120, 103954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2021.103954
[41]Lo, H. H. M., Wong, J. Y. H., Wong, S. W. L., et al. (2019). Applying Mindfulness to Benefit Economically Disadvantaged Families: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Research on Social Work Practice, 29(7), 753-765. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731518817142
[42]Lundahl, B., Risser, H. J., & Lovejoy, M. C. (2006). A meta-analysis of parent training: moderators and follow-up effects. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(1), 86–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2005.07.004
[43]Magill-Evans, J., Harrison, M. J., Rempel, G., & Slater, L. (2006). Interventions with fathers of young children: systematic literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 55, 248-264. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2006.03896.x
[44]Mak, Y. W., Leung, D. Y. P., Zhang, X., et al. (2024). Effects of a flexibly delivered group-based acceptance and commitment therapy on reducing stress and enhancing psychological wellbeing in parents of school-age children during the COVID-19 pandemic: a quasi-experimental study. Frontiers in Public Health, 12, 1485836. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1485836
[45]Masiran, R., Ibrahim, N., Awang, H., et al. (2022). Effectiveness of the Incredible Years parenting program for children with behavioral problems: An experience in a developing country during a pandemic. Children and Youth Services Review, 142, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106629
[46]McGoron, L., & Ondersma, S. (2015). Reviewing the need for technological and other expansions of evidence-based parent training for young children. Children and Youth Services Review, 59, 71-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.10.012
[47]Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., et al. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine, 6(7), e1000097. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
[48]Olthuis, J. V., McGrath, P. J., Cunningham, C. E., et al. (2018). Distance-Delivered Parent Training for Childhood Disruptive Behavior (Strongest Families™): a Randomized Controlled Trial and Economic Analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 46(8), 1613–1629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0413-y
[49]Orrell-Valente, J. K., Pinderhughes, E. E., Valente, E., Jr., & Laird, R. D. (1999). If it’s offered, will they come? Influences on parents’ participation in a community-based conduct problems prevention program. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 753–783. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022258525075
[50]Porzig-Drummond, R., Stevenson, R. J., & Stevenson, C. (2015). Preliminary evaluation of a self-directed video-based 1-2-3 Magic parenting program: a randomized controlled trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 66, 32–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2015.01.003
[51]Ribas, L. H., Montezano, B. B., Nieves, M., et al. (2024). The role of parental stress on emotional and behavioral problems in offspring: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Jornal de pediatria, 100(6), 565–585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jped.2024.02.003
[52]Rusu, P. P., Candel, O. S., Bogdan, I., et al. (2025). Parental Stress and Well-Being: A Meta-analysis. Clinical child and family psychology review, 10.1007/s10567-025-00515-9. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-025-00515-9
[53]Sangawi, H., Adams, J., & Reissland, N. (2018). Effects of parental intervention on behavioural and psychological outcomes for Kurdish parents and their children. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 24(5), 459–468. https://doi.org/10.26719/2018.24.5.459
[54]Shaffer, A., Fitzgerald, M. M., Shipman, K., & Torres, M. (2019). Let’s Connect: A developmentally-driven emotion-focused parenting intervention. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 63, 33-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.05.007.
[55]Sigmarsdóttir, M., Degarmo, D. S., Forgatch, M. S., & Guðmundsdóttir, E. V. (2013). Treatment effectiveness of PMTO for children’s behavior problems in Iceland: assessing parenting practices in a randomized controlled trial. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 54(6), 468–476. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12078
[56]Stormshak, E. A., McIntyre, L. L., Garbacz, S. A., & Kosty, D. B. (2020). Family-centered prevention to enhance parenting skills during the transition to elementary school: A randomized trial. Journal of Family Psychology, 34(1), 122-127. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000570
[57]Tehrani, H. D., Yamini, S., & Vazsonyi, A. T. (2024). Effects of parenting program components on parental stress: A systematic review and component network meta-analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 38(2), 320–332. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0001161
[58]Townshend, K., Jordan, Z., Stephenson, M., & Tsey, K. (2016). The effectiveness of mindful parenting programs in promoting parents’ and children’s wellbeing: a systematic review. JBI Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports, 14(3), 139–180. https://doi.org/10.11124/JBISRIR-2016-2314
[59]Verhagen, A. P., de Vet, H. C. W., de Bie, R. A., et al. (1998). The delphi list: A criteria list for quality assessment of randomized clinical trials for conducting systematic reviews developed by Delphi consensus. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 51(12), 1235-1241. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0895-4356(98)00131-0
[60]Ward, K. P., & Lee, S. J., (2020). Mothers’ and fathers’ parenting stress, responsiveness, and child wellbeing among low-income families. Children and Youth Services Review, 116, 105218, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105218
[61]Weissman, M. M., Berry, O. O., Warner, V., et al. (2016). A 30-Year Study of 3 Generations at High Risk and Low Risk for Depression. JAMA psychiatry, 73(9), 970–977. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.1586
