Acculturation and adaptation of international students at Portuguese universities
Abstract
The importance of understanding the adaptation of international students is particularly relevant to the expansion of the internationalization of higher education. This paper examines various psychosocial features with regard to the intercultural relations of international students (IS) in Portugal. This country is receiving an increasing number of IS. Two key components of intercultural relations are acculturation and adaptation. As regards the acculturation process, we examine studies on cultural identity, acculturation strategies, and perceived discrimination. As regards psychological adaptation, we examine studies on several indicators of subjective well-being (overall well-being, satisfaction with life, satisfaction with academic life, satisfaction with migration life), and loneliness. Finally, it is reviewed research on sociocultural adaptation. This set of reviewed studies on international students is consonant with the perspective that most migrant people adapt well in the society of settlement, notwithstanding the difficulties found across the intercultural contact. A relevant contribution to the acculturation field was the demonstration that sociocultural adaptation difficulty fully mediated the relationships of perceived discrimination and two indicators of psychological adaptation, satisfaction with life and loneliness. This underlying relationship of perceived discrimination with psychological adaptation means that programs to decrease sociocultural adaptation difficulties among international students may help to improve their psychological adaptation. Several other practical recommendations can be drawn from this set of studies.
Copyright (c) 2025 Author(s)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
[1]Abu‐Rayya, H. M., Berry, J. W., Sam, D. L., et al. (2023). Evaluating the integration hypothesis: A meta‐analysis of the ICSEY project data using two new methods. British Journal of Psychology, 114(4), 819–837. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12656
[2]Ahn, S., & Lee, S. (2023). Bridging the gap between theory and applied research in acculturation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 95, 101812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2023.101812
[3]Alnajjar, A. A., & Alacapınar, F. G. (2024). Understanding International Students’ Academic Adaptation and Motivation to Pursue Higher Education in Turkey. European Journal of Psychology and Educational Research, 7(2), 65–81. https://doi.org/10.12973/ejper.7.2.65
[4]António, M. (2013). Angolan higher education students in Lisbon: An anthropological perspective on their motivations and subjective well-being (Portuguese). Análise Social, 208(3), 660–682.
[5]Asher, S. R., & Paquette, J. A. (2003). Loneliness and Peer Relations in Childhood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(3), 75–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01233
[6]Bardo, A. R., & Yamashita, T. (2014). Validity of Domain Satisfaction Across Cohorts in the US. Social Indicators Research, 117(2), 367–385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0351-6
[7]Benet-Martínez, V., Lee, F., & Cheng, C. Y. (2021). Bicultural Identity Integration. Handbook of Advances in Culture and Psychology, Volume 8, 244–284. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190079741.003.0006
[8]Benner, A. D., Wang, Y., Shen, Y., et al. (2018). Racial/ethnic discrimination and well-being during adolescence: A meta-analytic review. American Psychologist, 73(7), 855–883. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000204
[9]Berry, J. W. (1980). Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In: Padilla, A. (editor). Acculturation: Theory, models and some new findings. Boulder: Westview.
[10]Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, Acculturation, and Adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5–34. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x
[11]Berry, J. W. (2017). Mutual Intercultural Relations. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316875032
[12]Berry, J. W., & Hou, F. (2017). Acculturation, discrimination and wellbeing among second generation of immigrants in Canada. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 61, 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2017.08.003
[13]Berry, J. W., & Hou, F. (2016). Immigrant acculturation and wellbeing in Canada. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 57(4), 254–264. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000064
[14]Berry, J. W., Lepshokova, Z., & Grigoryev, D. (2022). How shall we all live together?: Meta‐analytical review of the mutual intercultural relations in plural societies project. Applied Psychology, 71(3), 1014–1041. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12332
[15]Berry, J. W., Phinney, J. S., Sam, D. L., et al. (2006). Immigrant Youth in Cultural Transition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780415963619
[16]Brisset, C., Safdar, S., Lewis, J. R., et al. (2010). Psychological and sociocultural adaptation of university students in France: The case of Vietnamese international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 34(4), 413–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.02.009
[17]Cacioppo, S., Grippo, A. J., London, S., et al. (2015). Loneliness. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 238–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615570616
[18]Caycho-Rodríguez, T., Neto, J., Tomás, J. M., et al. (2020). Psychometric properties of the Satisfaction with Job Life Scale in Portuguese workers: A systematic study based on the IRT and CFA modeling. Heliyon, 6(6), e03881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03881
[19]Demes, K. A., & Geeraert, N. (2014). Measures Matter. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45(1), 91–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022113487590
[20]Diener, E. (2013). The Remarkable Changes in the Science of Subjective Well-Being. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(6), 663–666. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613507583
[21]Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., Griffin, A. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
[22]Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Tay, L. (2018). Advances in subjective well-being research. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(4), 253–260. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0307-6
[23]Furnham, A. (2004). Foreign students: Education and culture shock. The Psychologist, 17(1), 16–19.
[24]García-Coll, C., & Marks, A. K. (2012). The immigrant paradox in children and adolescents: Is becoming American a developmental risk?. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13094-000
[25]Grigoryev, D., Berry, J. W., & Zabrodskaja, A. (2021). Editorial: Stereotypes and Intercultural Relations: Interdisciplinary Integration, New Approaches, and New Contexts. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.728048
[26]Grigoryev, D., Berry, J. W., Stogianni, M., et al. (2023). The integration hypothesis: A critical evaluation informed by multilevel meta-analyses of three multinational datasets. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 97, 101897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2023.101897
[27]Imai, T., & Imai, A. (2019). Cross-Ethnic Self-Disclosure Buffering Negative Impacts of Prejudice on International Students’ Psychological and Social Well-Being. Journal of International Students, 9(1), 66–83. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v9i1.279
[28]Inguglia, C., Musso, P., Albiero, P., et al. (2020). Mutual intercultural relations among immigrant and autochthonous youth in Italy. Testing the integration, multiculturalism, and contact hypotheses. RICERCHE DI PSICOLOGIA, 1, 45–79. https://doi.org/10.3280/rip2020-001004
[29]Iorio, J. C. (2021). The motivations that put Portugal back on the route of Brazilian higher education students. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 19(3), 326–342. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2020.1831903
[30]Kao, G., & Tienda, M. (1995). Optimism and achievement: The educational performance of immigrant youth. Social Science Quarterly, 76(1), 1–19.
[31]Kilinc, A., & Granello, P. F. (2003). Overall Life Satisfaction and Help‐Seeking Attitudes of Turkish College Students in the United States: Implications for College Counselors. Journal of College Counseling, 6(1), 56–68. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.2003.tb00227.x
[32]Lent, R. W., Singley, D., Sheu, H. B., et al. (2007). Relation of Social-Cognitive Factors to Academic Satisfaction in Engineering Students. Journal of Career Assessment, 15(1), 87–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072706294518
[33]Lillyman, S., & Bennett, C. (2014). Providing a positive learning experience for international students studying at UK universities: A literature review. Journal of Research in International Education, 13(1), 63–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240914529859
[34]Lim, M. H., Holt-Lunstad, J., & Badcock, J. C. (2020). Loneliness: contemporary insights into causes, correlates, and consequences. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55(7), 789–791. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-020-01891-z
[35]Mourato, I. (2011). Portuguese cooperation policy with PALOPs: Contributions from polytechnic higher education (Portuguese) [PhD thesis]. Universidade Lusófona, Lisbon; Unpublished work.
[36]Neto, F. (2020). Subjective Well-Being of Angolan Students in Portugal. Journal of Studies in International Education, 24(4), 456–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315319861353
[37]Neto, F. (2021). Loneliness among African international students in Portugal. Journal of International Students, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v11i2.1379
[38]Neto, F. (2023). Brazilian International Students’ Satisfaction with Migration Life in Portugal. Journal of International Students, 13(2). https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v13i2.4782
[39]Neto, F. (2024). Determinants of Psychological Adaptation Among Brazilian International Students in Portugal. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2024.2422618
[40]Neto, F., & Fonseca, A. C. M. (2016). The Satisfaction with Migration Life Scale. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 54, 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2016.07.004
[41]Neto, F., & Wilks, D. C. (2017). Predictors of Psychological Adaptation of Cape Verdean Students in Portugal. Journal of College Student Development, 58(7), 1087–1100. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2017.0085
[42]Neto, J., Oliveira, E. N., & Neto, F. (2017). Acculturation, Adaptation and Loneliness among Brazilian Migrants Living in Portugal. People’s Movements in the 21st Century—Risks, Challenges and Benefits. https://doi.org/10.5772/65693
[43]OECD (2018). Education at a glance 2018: OECD indicators. Education. Education at a glance. OECD Publishing.
[44]Oliveira, C. (2022) Immigrant integration indicators: Annual statistical report. Observatório das Migrações.
[45]Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (2024). Education at a Glance 2024. Education at a Glance. https://doi.org/10.1787/c00cad36-en
[46]Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (1993). Review of the Satisfaction with Life Scale. Psychological Assessment, 5(2), 164–172. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.5.2.164
[47]Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2008). The Satisfaction with Life Scale and the emerging construct of life satisfaction. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3(2), 137–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760701756946
[48]Phinney, J. S. (2003). Ethic identity and acculturation. Acculturation: Advances in Theory, Measurement, and Applied Research., 63–81. https://doi.org/10.1037/10472-006
[49]Proctor, C. L., Linley, P. A., & Maltby, J. (2008). Youth Life Satisfaction: A Review of the Literature. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10(5), 583–630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-008-9110-9
[50]Reis, M., Duarte, T., Marques, E., et al. (2021). The increase of Brazilian students in a Portuguese engineering school: Motivations for international mobility and the key educational challenges. U. Porto Journal of Engineering, 7(1), 63–75.
[51]Richardson, T., Elliott, P., Roberts, R., et al. (2016). A Longitudinal Study of Financial Difficulties and Mental Health in a National Sample of British Undergraduate Students. Community Mental Health Journal, 53(3), 344–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-016-0052-0
[52]Rokach, A., & Neto, F. (2005). Age, culture, and the antecedents of loneliness. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 33(5), 477–494. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2005.33.5.477
[53]Ruiz, M. F., Neto, F., Muñoz Sastre, M. T., et al. (2009). Life Domain Satisfaction: A Portugal–France Comparison. Social Indicators Research, 94(1), 173–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-008-9359-8
[54]Safdar, S., & Berno, T. (2016). Sojourners. The Cambridge Handbook of Acculturation Psychology, 173–196. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781316219218.012
[55]Sam, D. L., & Berry, J. W. (2016). The Cambridge Handbook of Acculturation Psychology. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781316219218
[56]Sam, D. L., & Ward, C. (2021). Three Generations of Psychological Acculturation Research: Theoretical Advancements and Methodological Challenges. Methods and Assessment in Culture and Psychology, 17–40. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108675475.003
[57]Sam, D. L., Vedder, P., Liebkind, K., et al. (2008). Immigration, acculturation and the paradox of adaptation in Europe. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5(2), 138–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405620701563348
[58]Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Postmes, T., et al. (2014). The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 921–948. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035754
[59]Schmitz, P. G., & Schmitz, F. (2010). Different ways to design one’s lifestyle to adapt to a new culture: Comparison of Muslim, east-Asian and south-European immigrants in Germany. In: Tokuyasu, A., Kobayashi, M., Mori, M. (editors). Life course and life style, in comparison. Hosei University.
[60]Schmitz, P. G., & Schmitz, F. (2020). Individual differences in acculturation strategies: Challenges and changes for migrants. In Schmidt, C., Kleinfeld, R. (editors). The crisis of democracy: Chances, risks and challenges in Japan (Asia) and Germany (Europe). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
[61]Schmitz, P. G., & Schmitz, F. (2022). Correlates of Acculturation Strategies: Personality, Coping, and Outcome. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 53(7–8), 875–916. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220221221109939
[62]Tartakovsky, E., Patrakov, E., & Nikulina, M. (2021). Is emigration worth the trouble? Satisfaction with life, group identifications, perceived discrimination, and socio-economic status of immigrants and stayers. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 80, 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2020.11.012
[63]Tatarko, A., Berry, J. W., & Choi, K. (2020). Social capital, acculturation attitudes, and sociocultural adaptation of migrants from central Asian republics and South Korea in Russia. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 23(3), 302–312. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12401
[64]Thomas, D. C., Elron, E., Stahl, G., et al. (2008). Cultural Intelligence. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 8(2), 123–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470595808091787
[65]Valenzuela, M. A., Nguyen, A. D., & Taras, V. (2021). A review of organizational research on acculturation from a nonwork–work spillover perspective: Content analysis and future research guidelines. International Journal of Management Reviews, 23(4), 516–540. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12256
[66]Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1994). Acculturation strategies, psychological adjustment, and sociocultural competence during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 18, 329–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(94)90036-1
[67]Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1996). Crossing cultures: The relationship between psychological and socio-cultural dimensions of cross-cultural adjustment. In: Pandey, J., Sinha, D., & Bhawuk, D. P. S., (editors). Asian contributions to cross-cultural psychology. Sage Publications, Inc.
[68]Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1999). The measurement of sociocultural adaptation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23, 659–677. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(99)00014-0
[69]Ward, C., Bochner, S., & Furnham, A. (2001). The psychology of culture shock, 2nd ed. Routledge.
[70]Ward, C., Stuart, J., & Kus, L. (2011). The Construction and Validation of a Measure of Ethno-Cultural Identity Conflict. Journal of Personality Assessment, 93(5), 462–473. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2011.558872
[71]Wilks, D. C., & Neto, F. (2016). Exploring the adaptation experiences of Cape Verdean students in Portugal. International Journal of Educational Research, 76, 66–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2016.01.002
[72]Wilson, J., Ward, C., & Fischer, R. (2013). Beyond Culture Learning Theory. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(6), 900–927. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022113492889
[73]Zhang, J., & Goodson, P. (2011). Acculturation and psychosocial adjustment of Chinese international students: Examining mediation and moderation effects. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(5), 614–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.11.004
