System-level educational leadership as a resilience building mechanism: The case of Greece
Abstract
This paper explores the resilience of education systems in the face of the challenges that have arisen in the wake of the Covid-19 pandemic and emphasizes the urgent need for educational institutions to prepare for uncertainties and unforeseen challenges. The paper highlights the shortcomings of education systems in ensuring educational equity for disadvantaged students during the pandemic, emphasizes the limitations of current research on the resilience of education systems, and argues for the need to consider the resilience of the education system alongside the resilience of students and teachers. Drawing on the insights of the organizational and social-ecological approaches to resilience, this paper argues that the resilience of schools ultimately depends on their ability to ensure organizational learning. This study examines the barriers to organizational learning (OL) in Greek secondary schools using quantitative data from teachers. The research findings reveal structural, systemic and cultural barriers that hinder the promotion of OL and thus the resilience of schools. Building on previous research on nested systems and system leadership, the paper argues that schools are at the forefront of promoting resilience in the education system. It emphasizes the need for system-level educational leadership (SLEL) as a mediating governance mechanism that promotes interaction between schools and the wider education system to ensure the establishment of a meta-capability of learning at all levels. This research contributes to the discourse on educational leadership by emphasizing the importance of schools as resilience pillars capable of strengthening resilience across the education system.
Copyright (c) 2025 Author(s)

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
[1]Stevenson H. Learning to live in uncertain times. Professional Development in Education. 2020; 46(5): 729–730.
[2]Dishon G, Gilead T. Adaptability and its discontents: 21st-century skills and the preparation for an unpredictable future. British Journal of Educational Studies. 2021; 69(4): 393–413.
[3]Netolicky DM. School leadership during a pandemic: Navigating tensions. Journal of Professional Capital and Community. 2020; 5(3–4): 391–395.
[4]Blackman SN. The impact of Covid-19 on education equity: A view from Barbados and Jamaica. Prospects. 2022; 51(4): 611–625.
[5]Hanushek EA, Woessmann L. Stan Brakhage’s Metaphors on Vision. OECD Education Working Papers. 2020; 225: 1–23.
[6]United Nations.Policy Brief: Education during Covid-19 and beyond. Available online: https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2020/08/sg_policy_brief_covid-19_and_education_august_2020.pdf (accessed on 2 December 2024).
[7]UNESCO. International Day of Education 2022: Changing course, transforming learning. Available online: https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/international-day-education-2022-changing-course-transforming-learning (accessed on 8 March 2025).
[8]Nannyonjo H, Fernando CA, Oomeen A, et al. School leadership in uncertain times. Available online: https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/education/school-leadership-uncertain-times (accessed on 2 December 2024).
[9]UNESCO. Supporting teachers in back-to-school efforts. A toolkit for school leaders. Available online: https://teachertaskforce.org/knowledge-hub/supporting-teachers-back-school-efforts-toolkit-school-leaders-second-edition (accessed on 2 December 2024).
[10]UNICEF. Operational Guide for Monitoring Hybrid Learning Delivery Toward Long-term System Strengthening and Resilient Education Systems. Available online: https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/18081/file/Short%20guide%20to%20monitoring%20hybrid%20learning%202B.pdf (accessed on 2 December 2024).
[11]Hauseman C, Darazsi S, Kent S. Collaboration, Communication and Wellness: Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic in Manitoba Schools. International Studies in Educational Administration (Commonwealth Council for Educational Administration & Management (CCEAM). 2020; 48(2): 70.
[12]Pollock K. School leaders’ work during the COVID-19 pandemic: A two-pronged approach. International Studies in Educational Administration. 2020; 48(3): 38.
[13]Kafa A, Pashiardis P. Coping with the global pandemic COVID-19 through the lenses of the Cyprus education system. International Studies in Educational Administration. 2020; 48(2): 42–48.
[14]Hylton-Fraser K, Hylton K. Building educational resistance—A COVID-19 Jamaican perspective. CCEAM. 2021; 59.
[15]Jogezai NA, Baloch FA. COVID-19 and school leadership: A tale of transition. International Journal of Leadership in Education. 2024; 1–23.
[16]Miller O, Hancell R, Jones C. School leadership for resilient education systems: What is the role of professional networks in effective response to crisis? UNESDOC; 2022.
[17]DeMatthews D, Carrola P, Reyes P, et al. School leadership burnout and job-related stress: Recommendations for district administrators and principals. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas. 2021; 94(4): 159–167.
[18]Harris A, Jones M. Leading during a pandemic—what the evidence tells us. School Leadership & Management. 2022; 42(2): 105–109.
[19]Kavrayıcı C, Kesim E. School management during the Covid-19 pandemic: A qualitative study. Educational Administration: Theory and Practice. 2021; 27(1): 1005–1060.
[20]Borazon EQ, Chuang HH. Resilience in educational system: A systematic review and directions for future research. International Journal of Educational Development. 2023; 99: 102761.
[21]Cameron L, Thomas E, Amenya D, et al. Education System Resilience. GPE KIX Scoping Study Working Paper; 2024.
[22]Chandler D. Security Through Societal Resilience: Contemporary Challenges in the Anthropocene. Contemporary Security Policy. 2020; 41(2): 195–214.
[23]Waxman HC, Gray JP, Padron YN. Review of research on educational resilience. UC Berkeley Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence; 2003.
[24]Sanders J, Munford R, Liebenberg, L. The role of teachers in building resilience of at-risk youth. International Journal of Educational Research. 2016; 80: 111–123.
[25]Dülks J, Fekete A, Karutz H, et al. Identification of methodologies to quantify education system resilience—A scoping review. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction. 2023; 103967.
[26]Benavot A, Williams JH, Naidoo J. Should we not be educating for resilience? Leveraging SDG4 in times of crisis. International Journal of Educational Development. 2024; 104: 102929.
[27]Preston J. What is disaster education? In: Disaster education. Springer; 2012. pp. 1–10.
[28]Tarricone P, Mestan K, Teo I. Building resilient education systems: A rapid review of the education in emergencies literature. Australian Council for Educational Research; 2021.
[29]Plotkin Amrami G. Exploring the educational turn in resilience discourse in Israel: three moments of frame alignment. Journal of Education Policy. 2021; 36(5): 671–690.
[30]McPherson A, Casanueva Baptista, A. Resilience in the face of crisis: an analysis of the Australian government’s natural disaster resilience education program. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education. 2024; 1–13.
[31]Duckworth A. Grit: The power of passion and perseverance. Scribner Publishing; 2016.
[32]Naidu S. Building resilience in education systems post-COVID-19. Distance education. 2021; 42(1): 1–4.
[33]Lambrechts W. Learning ‘for’ and ‘in ‘the future: On the role of resilience and empowerment in education. UNESCO; 2020.
[34]Benadusi M. Pedagogies of the unknown: Unpacking ‘culture ‘in disaster risk reduction education. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management. 2014; 22(3): 174–183.
[35]Davidoff S, Lazarus S. The learning school: An organisation development approach. Juta and Company Ltd.; 2002.
[36]Collinson V, Cook TF, Conley S. Organizational learning in schools and school systems: Improving learning, teaching, and leading. Theory into practice. 2006; 45(2): 107–116.
[37]Kools M, Stoll L. What Makes a School a Learning Organisation? OECD Publishing; 2016.
[38]Van Der Vegt GS, Essens P, Wahlström M, et al. Managing risk and resilience. Academy of Management Journal. 2015; 58(4): 971–980.
[39]Duchek S, Raetze S, Scheuch I. The role of diversity in organizational resilience: a theoretical framework. Business research. 2020; 13(2): 387–423.
[40]Gittell JH, Cameron K, Lim S, et al. Relationships, layoffs, and organizational resilience: Airline industry responses to September 11. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. 2006; 42(3): 300–329
[41]Hamel G, Välikangas L. The quest for resilience. Harvard Business Review. 2003; 81(9): 52–65.
[42]DesJardine M, Bansal P, Yang Y. Bouncing back: Building resilience through social and environmental practices in the context of the 2008 global financial crisis. Journal of Management. 2019; 45(5): 1434–1460.
[43]Linnenluecke MK, Griffiths A, Winn M. Extreme weather events and the critical importance of anticipatory adaptation and organizational resilience in responding to impacts. Business strategy and the Environment. 2012; 21(1): 17–32.
[44]Sutcliffe KM, Vogus TJ. Organizing for resilience. In: Cameron KS, Dutton JE, Quinn RE (editors). Positive Organizational Scholarship. Berrett-Koehler; 2003. pp. 94–110.
[45]Conz E, Magnani GA. dynamic perspective on the resilience of firms: A systematic literature review and a framework for future research. European Management Journal. 2020; 38(3): 400–412.
[46]Chen R, Xie Y, Liu Y. Defining, conceptualizing, and measuring organizational resilience: A multiple case study. Sustainability. 2021; 13(5): 2517.
[47]Hollands L, Haensse L, Lin-Hi N. The How and Why of organizational resilience: A mixed-methods study on facilitators and consequences of organizational resilience throughout a crisis. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. 2023; 60(3): 449–493.
[48]Holling CS. Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 1973; 4: 1–23.
[49]Carpenter SR, Gunderson LH. Coping with Collapse: Ecological and Social Dynamics in Ecosystem Management: Like flight simulators that train would-be aviators, simple models can be used to evoke people’s adaptive, forward-thinking behavior, aimed in this instance at sustainability of human–natural systems. BioScience. 2001; 51(6): 451–457.
[50]Folke C. Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social-ecological systems analyses. Global environmental change. 2006; 16(3): 253–267.
[51]Holling CS. Understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems. Ecosystems. 2001; 4: 390–405.
[52]Folke C, Carpenter SR, Walker B, et al. Resilience thinking: Integrating resilience, adaptability and transformability. Ecology and society. 2010, 15(4).
[53]Plummer R. Social–ecological resilience and environmental education: Synopsis, application, implications, Environmental Education Research. 2010; 16(5–6): 493–509.
[54]Folke C, Pritchard Jr L, Berkes F, et al. The problem of fit between ecosystems and institutions: Ten years later. Ecology and society. 2007; 12(1).
[55]Holling CS. Engineering resilience versus ecological resilience. Engineering within ecological constraints. 1996; 31: 32.
[56]Gunderson LH, Holling CS, Light SS. Barriers and Bridges to the Renewal of Ecosystems and Institutions. Columbia University Press; 1995.
[57]Argyris C. On organizational learning, 2nd ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 1999.
[58]Argyris C, Schon DA. Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. John Wiley & Sons; 1992.
[59]Hawkins P. A centennial tribute to Gregory Bateson 1904–1980 and his influence on the fields of organizational development and action research. Action Research. 2004; 2(4): 409–423.
[60]Swieringa J, Wierdsma AF. Becoming a learning organization: Beyond the learning curve. Addison-Wesley Longman Ltd; 1992
[61]Snell R, Chak AMK. The learning organization: learning and empowerment for whom? Management learning. 1998; 29(3): 337–364.
[62]Yutha K, Dillard JF, Rogers RK. Beyond agency and structure: Triple-loop learning. Journal of business ethics. 2004; 51: 229–243.
[63]Burnard K, Bhamra R. Organizational resilience: Development of a conceptual framework for organizational responses. International Journal of Production Research. 2011; 49(18): 5581–5599.
[64]Gunderson LH. Ecological resilience—in theory and application. Annual review of ecology and systematics. 2000; 31(1): 425–439.
[65]Holling CS, Gunderson LH. Panarchy: Understanding transformations in human and natural systems. Island Press; 2002.
[66]Kayes DC. Organizational resilience: How learning sustains organizations in crisis, disaster, and breakdown. Oxford University Press; 2015.
[67]Armitage D. Adaptive capacity and community-based natural resource management. Environmental management. 2005; 35: 703–715.
[68]Berman R, Quinn C, Paavola J. The role of institutions in the transformation of coping capacity to sustainable adaptive capacity. Environmental Development. 2012; (2): 86–100.
[69]Fazey I, Fazey JA, Fischer J, et al. Adaptive capacity and learning to learn as leverage for social-ecological resilience. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 2007; 5(7): 375–380.
[70]Theodoropoulou S. Recovery, resilience and growth regimes under overlapping EU conditionalities: The case of Greece. Comparative European Politics. 2022; 20(2): 201–219.
[71]Ervasti H, Kouvo A, Venetoklis T. Social and institutional trust in times of crisis: Greece, 2002–2011. Social Indicators Research. 2019; 141: 1207–1231.
[72]Adam S, Papatheodorou C. Dismantling the feeble social protection system of Greece: consequences of the crisis and austerity measures. Challenges to European welfare systems. 2016; 271–300.
[73]Chtouris S, Miller DS. Refugee flows and volunteers in the current humanitarian crisis in Greece. Journal of Applied Security Research. 2017; 12(1): 61–77.
[74]Seo MG. Overcoming emotional barriers, political obstacles, and control imperatives in the action-science approach to individual and organizational learning. Academy of Management Learning & Education. 2003; 2(1): 7–21.
[75]Zarei Matin H, Akhawan Alavi SH. Identifying the barriers of developing organizational learning in administrative organizations. Iranian Journal of Management Studies. 2007; 1(1): 17–38.
[76]Williams R, Brien K, LeBlanc J. Transforming schools into learning organizations: Supports and barriers to educational reform. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy. 2012; 134.
[77]Guo Y, Xu B, Lyu B, et al. How social and emotional skills affect Chinese college student engagement in high-impact educational practices: a moderated mediation model. Studies in Higher Education. 2024; 50(1): 27–46.
[78]OECD. Education Policy Outlook. Available online: www.oecd.org/education/policy-outlook/country-profile-Greece-2020.pdf (accessed on 2 December 2024).
[79]OECD. The Greek education system in context. In: Education for a Bright Future in Greece. OECD Publishing; 2018.
[80]OECD. Education at a Glance. Available online: https://www.oecd.org/education/education-at-a-glance/EAG2019_CN_GRC.pdf/ (accessed on 2 December 2024).
[81]Hallinger P. Leadership for learning: Lessons from 40 years of empirical research. Journal of educational administration. 2011; 49(2): 125–142.
[82]Dimmock C. System leadership for school improvement: A developing concept and set of practices. Scottish Educational Review. 2016; 48(2): 60–79.
[83]Greany T. Collaboration, partnerships and system leadership across schools. Bloomsbury Publishing; 2016.
[84]Hopkins D. Every School a Great School: Realizing the Potential of System Leadership. In: Second International Handbook of Educational Change. Springer; 2007.
[85]Hopkins D. Exploding the myths of school reform. School Leadership & Management. 2013; 33(4): 304–321.
[86]Boylan M. Deepening system leadership: Teachers leading from below. Educational management administration & leadership. 2016; 44(1): 57–72.
[87]Gurr D, Drysdale L. System leadership and school leadership. Research in Educational Administration and Leadership. 2018; 3(2): 207–229.
[88]Mowat JG. ‘Closing the gap’: Systems leadership is no leadership at all without a moral compass–a Scottish perspective. School Leadership & Management. 2019; 39(1): 48–75.
[89]Harris A. Leading system transformation. School leadership and management. 2010; 30(3): 197–207.
[90]Fullan M. Indelible leadership: Always leave them learning. Corwin Press; 2016.
[91]Butler SC. System leadership in Victoria, Australia [PhD thesis]. University of Melbourne, Graduate School of Education; 2014.
[92]Keshavarz N, Nutbeam D, Rowling L, et al. Schools as social complex adaptive systems: a new way to understand the challenges of introducing the health promoting schools’ concept. Social science & medicine. 2010; 70(10): 1467–1474.
[93]Davis B, Sumara D. Complexity and education: Inquiries into learning, teaching, and research. Routledge; 2014.
[94]Walloth C. Emergent nested systems. Emergent Nested Systems: A Theory of Understanding and Influencing Complex Systems as Well as Case Studies in Urban Systems. 2016; 1: 13–17.
[95]Morin E. Method 1: The nature of nature (Spanish). Catedra; 2022.
[96]Hillmann J. Disciplines of organizational resilience: contributions, critiques, and future research avenues. Review of Managerial Science. 2021; 15(4): 879–936.
[97]Berkes F, Colding J, Folke C. Navigating social-ecological systems: Building resilience for complexity and change. Cambridge University Press; 2008.


