Loneliness and life’s stages: A commentary

  • Ami Rokach York University, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada
Ariticle ID: 1138
44 Views, 40 PDF Downloads
Keywords: adolescence; adulthood; childhood; elderly; loneliness; young adults

Abstract

Loneliness is an integral part of life. It may be experienced periodically or on a continuous basis, but regardless, humans are all aware of its existence and influence on their lives. In this commentary, we examine the loneliness that humans face, from cradle to grave, and how it feels. Age, life experience, maturation, personal awareness, and cultural background bring about and affect our loneliness experiences. We highlight the experience as it presents itself in each of life’s stages.

References

[1] Rokach A. The psychological journey to and from loneliness: Development, causes, and effects of social and emotional isolation. Academic Press; 2019.

[2] Beutel ME, Klein EM, Brähler E, et al. Loneliness in the general population: prevalence, determinants and relations to mental health. BMC Psychiatry. 2017; 17(1). doi: 10.1186/s12888-017-1262-x

[3] Heinze JE. Belonging and social transitions: The role of belonging needs during a period of social transition. University of Illinois Chicago; 2013.

[4] Bowlby J. Attachment and loss, vol. 1, attachment, 2nd ed. Basic books; 1969.

[5] Betts LR, Bicknell ASA. Experiencing loneliness in childhood: Consequences for psychological adjustment, school adjustment, and academic performance. In: Bevinn SJ (editor). Psychology of loneliness. Nova Science Pub; 2011.

[6] Sullivan HS. The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. Norton; 1953.

[7] Weiss RS. Loneliness The experience of emotional and social isolation. The MIT Press; 1973.

[8] Campbell M. Lonely young people and technology. In Rokach A (editor). Correlates of Loneliness. Bentham Pub; 2016.

[9] Galanaki E. Teachers and Loneliness. School Psychology International. 2004; 25(1): 92-105. doi: 10.1177/0143034304041504

[10] Larsen L, Helland MS, Holt T. The impact of school closure and social isolation on children in vulnerable families during COVID-19: a focus on children’s reactions. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2021; 31(8): 1-11. doi: 10.1007/s00787-021-01758-x

[11] Qualter P, Brown SL, Munn P, et al. Childhood loneliness as a predictor of adolescent depressive symptoms: an 8-year longitudinal study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2009; 19(6): 493-501. doi: 10.1007/s00787-009-0059-y

[12] Margalit M. Lonely Children and Adolescents: Self-Perceptions, Social Exclusions, and Hope. Springer; 2010.

[13] Rokach A. Loneliness, its effect on mental and physical health, and the dying. Palliative Medicine. 2022; 36(10): 1450-1451. doi: 10.1177/02692163221135223

[14] Hawker DSJ, Boulton MJ. Twenty Years’ Research on Peer Victimization and Psychosocial Maladjustment: A Meta-analytic Review of Cross‐sectional Studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2000; 41(4): 441-455. doi: 10.1111/1469-7610.00629

[15] Coplan RJ, Closson LM, Arbeau KA. Gender differences in the behavioral associates of loneliness and social dissatisfaction in kindergarten. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2007; 48(10): 988-995. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01804.x

[16] Kochenderfer-Ladd B, Skinner K. Children’s coping strategies: Moderators of the effects of peer victimization? Developmental Psychology. 2002; 38(2): 267-278. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.38.2.267

[17] Lyu B, Zhang D, Yang Y. The Influence of Family Structure Differences on Physical Activity of Children and Adolescents in China-Taking Social Capital and Health Behavior as Mediating Factors. Journal of Multidisciplinary in Social Sciences. 2023; 17(1): 37-46.

[18] Vandeleur CL, Perrez M, Schoebi D. Associations Between Measures of Emotion and Familial Dynamics in Normative Families With Adolescents. Swiss Journal of Psychology. 2007; 66(1): 5-16. doi: 10.1024/1421-0185.66.1.5

[19] Zhang D, Su T, Lyu B, et al. The effects of adolescent physical activity participation on cell phone dependence: The mediating role of self-control. Work. 2022; 72(4): 1289-1298. doi: 10.3233/wor-210702

[20] Junttila N, Vauras M, Laakkonen E. The role of parenting self-efficacy in children's social and academic behavior. European Journal of Psychology of Education. 2007; 22(1): 41-61. doi: 10.1007/BF0317368z

[21] Segrin C, Burke T, Badger T, et al. Loneliness, Relationships, and Health. The Correlates of Loneliness. Published online June 26, 2016: 128-155. doi: 10.2174/9781681080703116010009

[22] Rutter M, Silberg J, O’Connor T, et al. Genetics and Child Psychiatry: II Empirical Research Findings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 1999; 40(1): 19-55. doi: 10.1111/1469-7610.00423

[23] Boomsma DI, Cacioppo JT, Muthén B, et al. Longitudinal Genetic Analysis for Loneliness in Dutch Twins. Twin Research and Human Genetics. 2007; 10(2): 267-273. doi: 10.1375/twin.10.2.267

[24] Distel MA, Rebollo-Mesa I, Abdellaoui A, et al. Familial Resemblance for Loneliness. Behavior Genetics. 2010; 40(4): 480-494. doi: 10.1007/s10519-010-9341-5

[25] Rokach A, Sha’ked A. Together and lonely: Loneliness in Intimate relationships—causes and coping. Nova Pub; 2013.

[26] Ladd GW, Buhs ES, Seid M. Children's initial sentiments about kindergarten: Is school liking an antecedent of early classroom participation and achievement? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly. 2000; 46(2): 255-279.

[27] Valeski TN, Stipek DJ. Young Children’s Feelings about School. Child Development. 2001; 72(4): 1198-1213. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00342

[28] Galanaki EP, Vassilopoulou HD. Teachers and children’s loneliness: A review of the literature and educational implications. European Journal of Psychology of Education. 2007; 22(4): 455-475. doi: 10.1007/bf03173466

[29] Murray C, Greenberg MT. Relationships with teachers and bonds with school: Social emotional adjustment correlates for children with and without disabilities. Psychology in the Schools. 2001; 38(1): 25-41.

[30] Arnett JJ. Adolescent storm and stress, reconsidered. American Psychologist. 1999; 54(5): 317-326. doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.54.5.317

[31] Laursen B, Coy KC, Collins WA. Reconsidering Changes in Parent-Child Conflict across Adolescence: A Meta-Analysis. Child Development. 1998; 69(3): 817-832. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.00817.x

[32] Larson R, Richards MH. Divergent realities: The emotional lives of mothers, fathers, and adolescents. Basic Books; 1994.

[33] Johnston LD, O'Malley PM, Bachman JG. National survey results on drug use from the monitoring the future study, 1975-1993. Government Printing Office; 1994.

[34] Hall GS. Adolescence Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology Sex, Crime, Religion and Education, Vol. II. D Appleton & Company; 1904. doi: 10.1037/10618-000

[35] Pavri S, ed. Relationship Between Peer Victimization and Loneliness in Children and Youth: Promising Approaches. The Correlates of Loneliness. Published online June 26, 2016: 81-107. doi: 10.2174/9781681080703116010007

[36] Maes M, Vanhalst J, Van den Noortgate W, et al. Intimate and Relational Loneliness in Adolescence. Journal of Child and Family Studies. 2017; 26(8): 2059-2069. doi: 10.1007/s10826-017-0722-8

[37] Cassidy J, Berlin LJ. The Insecure/Ambivalent Pattern of Attachment: Theory and Research. Child Development. 1994; 65(4): 971. doi: 10.2307/1131298

[38] Segrin C, Nevarez N, Arroyo A, et al. Family of Origin Environment and Adolescent Bullying Predict Young Adult Loneliness. The Journal of Psychology. 2012; 146(1-2): 119-134. doi: 10.1080/00223980.2011.555791

[39] Danneel S, Maes M, Vanhalst J, et al. Developmental Change in Loneliness and Attitudes Toward Aloneness in Adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 2017; 47(1): 148-161. doi: 10.1007/s10964-017-0685-5

[40] Heinrich LM, Gullone E. The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review. 2006; 26(6): 695-718. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002

[41] Holt-Lunstad J, Smith TB, Baker M, et al. Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality. Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2015; 10(2): 227-237. doi: 10.1177/1745691614568352

[42] Miller G. Why Loneliness Is Hazardous to Your Health. Science. 2011; 331(6014): 138-140. doi: 10.1126/science.331.6014.138

[43] Stickley A, Koyanagi A, Koposov R, et al. Loneliness and health risk behaviours among Russian and U.S. adolescents: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2014; 14(1). doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-366

[44] Van Buskirk AM, Duke MP. The Relationship Between Coping Style and Loneliness in Adolescents: Can “Sad Passivity” Be Adaptive? The Journal of Genetic Psychology. 1991; 152(2): 145-157. doi: 10.1080/00221325.1991.9914662

[45] Cacioppo JT, Ernst JM, Burleson MH, et al. Lonely traits and concomitant physiological processes: The MacArthur social neuroscience studies. International Journal of Psychophysiology. 2000; 35(2-3): 143-154.

[46] Goossens L, Marcoen A. Adolescent loneliness, self-reflection, and identity: from individual differences to developmental processes. In: Rotenberg KJ, Hymel S (editors). Loneliness in Childhood and Adolescence. Cambridge University Press; 1999.

[47] Kupersmidt JB, Sigda KB, Sedikides C, Voegler ME. In Rotenberg KJ, Hymel S (editors). Loneliness in childhood and adolescence. Cambridge University Press; 1999.

[48] Rokach A. Loneliness and the Life Cycle. Psychological Reports. 2000; 86(2): 629-642. doi: 10.2466/pr0.2000.86.2.629

[49] Hatcher RA, Trussell J, Stewart F, Stewart G. Contraceptive technology. Irvington; 1994.

[50] Coon D, Mitterer JO. Introduction to psychology, gateways to mind and behavior, 13th ed. Thomson/Wadsworth; 2013.

[51] Dworetzky JP. Psychology, 4th ed. West Publishing Co; 1991.

[52] Arnett JJ. Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist. 2000; 55(5): 469-480. doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.55.5.469

[53] Aanes MM, Mittelmark MB, Hetland J. Interpersonal Stress and Poor Health. European Psychologist. 2010; 15(1): 3-11. doi: 10.1027/1016-9040/a000003

[54] Cacioppo JT, Cacioppo S. Social Relationships and Health: The Toxic Effects of Perceived Social Isolation. Social and Personality Psychology Compass. 2014; 8(2): 58-72. doi: 10.1111/spc3.12087

[55] Rokach A, Goldberg JO. Editorial: From Loneliness to Belonging - The Path We Hope to Take. Frontiers in Psychology. 2021; 12. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.761440

[56] Aldwin CM. The Elders Life Stress Inventory (ELSI): Research and clinical applications. In: Heyman Innovations in clinical practice: Asource book. PsycTESTS Dataset; 1990.

[57] Keene JR, Quadagno J. Predictors of Perceived Work-Family Balance: Gender Difference or Gender Similarity? Sociological Perspectives. 2004; 47(1): 1-23. doi: 10.1525/sop.2004.47.1.1

[58] Putney NM, Bengtson VL. Families, intergenerational relationships, and kinkeeping in midlife. In Lachman ME. (editor). Handbook of midlife development. John Wiley & Sons; 2001.

[59] Antonucci TC, Hiroko A, Merline A. Dynamics of social relationships in midlife. In M. E. Lachman (Ed.), Handbook of midlife development. John Wiley & Sons; 2001.

[60] Rook KS, Charles ST. Close social ties and health in later life: Strengths and vulnerabilities. American Psychologist. 2017; 72(6): 567-577. doi: 10.1037/amp0000104

[61] Dykstra PA, van Tilburg TG, Gierveld JJ. Changes in Older Adult Loneliness. Research on Aging. 2005; 27(6): 725-747. doi: 10.1177/0164027505279712

[62] Cohen-Mansfield J, Parpura-Gill A. Loneliness in older persons: a theoretical model and empirical findings. International Psychogeriatrics. 2006; 19(02): 279. doi: 10.1017/s1041610206004200

[63] Cohen-Mansfield J, Hazan H, Lerman Y, et al. Correlates and predictors of loneliness in older-adults: a review of quantitative results informed by qualitative insights. International Psychogeriatrics. 2015; 28(4): 557-576. doi: 10.1017/s1041610215001532

[64] Prince MJ, Harwood RH, Blizard RA, et al. Impairment, disability and handicap as risk factors for depression in old age. The Gospel Oak Project V. Psychological Medicine. 1997; 27(2): 311-321. doi: 10.1017/s0033291796004473

[65] Pinquart M, Sorensen S. Influences on Loneliness in Older Adults: A Meta-Analysis. Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 2001; 23(4): 245-266. doi: 10.1207/s15324834basp2304

[66] Centers for Disease Control Prevention. Public health and aging: Trends in aging – United States and worldwide. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2003; 52(6): 101-106.

[67] Rokach A, Matalon R, SaFarov A, et al. The Dying, Those Who Care for Them, and How They Cope with Loneliness. American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine. 2007; 24(5): 399-407. doi: 10.1177/1049909107305652

[68] Tilvis RS, Kahonen-Vare MH, Jolkkonen J, et al. Predictors of Cognitive Decline and Mortality of Aged People Over a 10-Year Period. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences. 2004; 59(3): M268-M274. doi: 10.1093/gerona/59.3.m268

[69] Yeh SJ, Lo SK. Living alone, social support, and feeling lonely among the elderly. Social Behavior and Personality. 2004; 32(2): 129-138. doi: 10.2224/sbp.2004.32.2.129

[70] Capezuti E, Boltz M, Renz S, et al. Nursing Home Involuntary Relocation: Clinical Outcomes and Perceptions of Residents and Families. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association. 2006; 7(8): 486-492. doi: 10.1016/j.jamda.2006.02.011

[71] Walker C, Curry LC, Hogstel MO. Relocation Stress Syndrome in Older Adults Transitioning from Home to a Long-Term Care Facility: Myth or Reality? Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services. 2007; 45(1): 38-45. doi: 10.3928/02793695-20070101-09

[72] Hawkley LC, Cacioppo JT. Aging and Loneliness. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2007; 16(4): 187-191. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00501.x

[73] Martin P, Hagberg B, Poon LW. Predictors of loneliness in centenarians: A parallel study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology. 1997; 12(3): 203-224.

[74] Savikko N, Routasalo P, Tilvis RS, et al. Predictors and subjective causes of loneliness in an aged population. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics. 2005; 41(3): 223-233. doi: 10.1016/j.archger.2005.03.002

[75] Fakoya OA, McCorry NK, Donnelly M. Loneliness and social isolation interventions for older adults: a scoping review of reviews. BMC Public Health. 2020; 20(1). doi: 10.1186/s12889-020-8251-6

[76] Victor C, Scambler S, Bond J, et al. Being alone in later life: loneliness, social isolation and living alone. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology. 2000; 10(4): 407-417. doi: 10.1017/s0959259800104101

[77] Pikhartova J, Bowling A, Victor C. Is loneliness in later life a self-fulfilling prophecy? Aging & Mental Health. 2015; 20(5): 543-549. doi: 10.1080/13607863.2015.1023767

[78] Wilson RS, Krueger KR, Arnold SE, et al. Loneliness and Risk of Alzheimer Disease. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2007; 64(2): 234. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.64.2.234

[79] Alpass FM, Neville S. Loneliness, health and depression in older males. Aging & Mental Health. 2003; 7(3): 212-216. doi: 10.1080/1360786031000101193

[80] Boss L, Kang DH, Branson S. Loneliness and cognitive function in the older adult: a systematic review. International Psychogeriatrics. 2015; 27(4): 541-553. doi: 10.1017/s1041610214002749

[81] de Jong Gierveld J, Broese van Groenou M, Hoogendoorn AW, et al. Quality of Marriages in Later Life and Emotional and Social Loneliness. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 2009; 64B(4): 497-506. doi: 10.1093/geronb/gbn043

[82] Long MV, Martin P. Personality, Relationship Closeness, and Loneliness of Oldest Old Adults and Their Children. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 2000; 55(5): P311-P319. doi: 10.1093/geronb/55.5.p311

[83] van Beljouw IMJ, van Exel E, de Jong Gierveld J, et al. “Being all alone makes me sad”: loneliness in older adults with depressive symptoms. International Psychogeriatrics. 2014; 26(9): 1541-1551. doi: 10.1017/s1041610214000581

[84] Gatz M, Smyer MA, DiGilio DA. Psychology’s contribution to the well-being of older americans. American Psychologist. 2016; 71(4): 257-267. doi: 10.1037/a0040251

[85] Yang K, Victor C. The prevalence of loneliness in 25 European Countries. Ageing & Society. 2011; 31: 1-2.

[86] Dykstra PA. Older adult loneliness: myths and realities. European Journal of Ageing. 2009; 6(2): 91-100. doi: 10.1007/s10433-009-0110-3

[87] Reher DS. Family Ties in Western Europe: Persistent Contrasts. Population and Development Review. 1998; 24(2): 203. doi: 10.2307/2807972

[88] Alexander BB, Rubinstein RL, Goodman M, et al. A Path Not Taken: A Cultural Analysis of Regrets and Childlessness in the Lives of Older Women. The Gerontologist. 1992; 32(5): 618-626. doi: 10.1093/geront/32.5.618

[89] Kim HHs, Jung JH. Social Isolation and Psychological Distress During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-National Analysis. Castle NG, ed. The Gerontologist. 2020; 61(1): 103-113. doi: 10.1093/geront/gnaa168

Published
2023-10-03
How to Cite
Rokach, A. (2023). Loneliness and life’s stages: A commentary. Applied Psychology Research, 2(1), 1138. https://doi.org/10.59400/apr.v2i1.1138
Section
Commentary