Heavy metals in the environment: Detection techniques and toxicity

  • Imene Hadj Henni School of Resource and Environmental Sciences, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430062, China
Article ID: 2772
DOI: https://doi.org/10.59400/jts2772
Keywords: heavy metal; toxicity; pollutants; detection techniques; sensors

Abstract

Heavy metals are characterized by their relevance, toxicity, and capacity to accumulate in the natural environment. Therefore, their emission into the air can cause long-term environmental hazards. In addition, they can be transported in the atmosphere over long distances and deposited in regions far from the emission location. Among the pollutants currently implicated by their toxicity in the environment, we can cite, in order of importance, mercury, cadmium and lead, which are currently a matter of concern. Mercury is transported over long distances in the atmosphere, and its biotransformation into toxic methylated compounds and bioaccumulation in the trophic chain have made it a major pollutant. Cadmium, which is relatively rare and is mainly found in ores, is considered one of the most toxic metals. Its accumulation in different types of sediment and its capacity for remobilization constitute particularly worrying risks. Finally, although Pb is less toxic than Hg and Cd, it is very abundant in its natural state and is used in large quantities in industry, which makes this ubiquitous toxin a permanent threat to the health of populations. This review provides an analysis of the occurrence of heavy metals in the environment, including Cu, Pb, Ni, Hg, Cr, Zn, Fe, and Cd, their toxicity potential, their impact on human health, and detection technologies using Field-Effect Transistor (FET) sensors.

Published
2025-04-27
How to Cite
Henni, I. H. (2025). Heavy metals in the environment: Detection techniques and toxicity. Journal of Toxicological Studies, 3(1), 2772. https://doi.org/10.59400/jts2772
Issue
Vol. 3 No. 1 (2025)
Section
Review

Copyright (c) 2025 Author(s)

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

References

[1]Mitra S, Chakraborty AJ, Tareq AM, et al. Impact of heavy metals on the environment and human health: Novel therapeutic insights to counter the toxicity. Journal of King Saud University—Science. 2022; 34(3): 101865. doi: 10.1016/j.jksus.2022.101865.

[2]Razzak SA, Faruque MO, Alsheikh Z, et al. A comprehensive review on conventional and biological-driven heavy metals removal from industrial wastewater. Environmental Advances. 2022; 7: 100168. doi: 10.1016/j.envadv.2022.100168

[3]Singh V, Ahmed G, Vedika S, et al. Toxic heavy metal ions contamination in water and their sustainable reduction by eco-friendly methods: Isotherms, thermodynamics and kinetics study. Scientific Reports. 2024; 14(1). doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-58061-3

[4]Tangahu BV, Sheikh Abdullah SR, Basri H, et al. A Review on Heavy Metals (As, Pb, and Hg) Uptake by Plants through Phytoremediation. International Journal of Chemical Engineering. 2011; 2011(1). doi: 10.1155/2011/939161

[5]Nyiramigisha P, Komariah, Sajidan. (2021). Harmful impacts of heavy metal contamination in the soil and crops grown around dumpsites. Reviews in Agricultural Science. 2021; 9: 271–282.

[6]Witkowska D, Słowik J, Chilicka K. Heavy Metals and Human Health: Possible Exposure Pathways and the Competition for Protein Binding Sites. Molecules. 2021; 26(19): 6060. doi: 10.3390/molecules26196060

[7]Briffa J, Sinagra E, Blundell R. Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans. Heliyon. 2020; 6(9): e04691. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04691

[8]Haidar Z, Fatema K, Shoily SS, Sajib AA. Disease-associated metabolic pathways affected by heavy metals and metalloid. Toxicology Reports. 2023; 10: 554–570. doi: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2023.04.010

[9]Alengebawy A, Abdelkhalek ST, Qureshi SR, Wang MQ. Heavy Metals and Pesticides Toxicity in Agricultural Soil and Plants: Ecological Risks and Human Health Implications. Toxics. 2021; 9(3): 42. doi: 10.3390/toxics9030042

[10]Srivastava V, Sarkar A, Singh S, et al. Agroecological Responses of Heavy Metal Pollution with Special Emphasis on Soil Health and Plant Performances. Frontiers in Environmental Science. 2017; 5: 64. doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2017.00064

[11]Sodhi KK, Mishra LC, Singh CK, Kumar M. Perspective on the heavy metal pollution and recent remediation strategies. Current Research in Microbial Sciences. 2022; 3: 100166. doi: 10.1016/j.crmicr.2022.100166

[12]Egorova KS, Ananikov VP. Toxicity of Metal Compounds: Knowledge and Myths. Organometallics. 2017; 36(21): 4071–4090. doi: 10.1021/acs.organomet.7b00605

[13]Okereafor U, Makhatha M, Mekuto L, et al. Toxic Metal Implications on Agricultural Soils, Plants, Animals, Aquatic life and Human Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(7): 2204. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17072204

[14]Killin LOJ, Starr JM, Shiue IJ, Russ TC. Environmental risk factors for dementia: A systematic review. BMC Geriatrics. 2016; 16(1): 1–28. doi: 10.1186/s12877-016-0342-y

[15]Singh A, Sharma A, Verma RK, et al. Heavy Metal Contamination of Water and Their Toxic Effect on Living Organisms. The Toxicity of Environmental Pollutants. 2022. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.105075

[16]Li J, Shi Z, Liu M, et al. Identifying anthropogenic sources of groundwater contamination by natural background levels and stable isotope application in Pinggu basin, China. Journal of Hydrology. 2021; 596: 126092. doi: 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126092

[17]Sigel A, Sigel H, Sigel RK. Cadmium: From Toxicity to Essentiality. Springer Netherlands; 2013.

[18]Shahid M, Dumat C, Khalid S, et al. Cadmium bioavailability, uptake, toxicity and detoxification in soil-plant system. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 2017; 241: 73–137.

[19]Khan MO. Manufacturing Waste for Sustainable Energy Generation: A Comprehensive Review of Current Methods and Future Trends. 2023. doi: 10.20944/preprints202311.0935.v1

[20]Manisalidis I, Stavropoulou E, Stavropoulos A, Bezirtzoglou E. Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review. Frontiers in Public Health. 2020; 8: 14. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00014

[21]Byber K, Lison D, Verougstraete V, et al. Cadmium or cadmium compounds and chronic kidney disease in workers and the general population: A systematic review. Critical Reviews in Toxicology. 2016; 46(3): 191–240. doi: 10.3109/10408444.2015.1076375

[22]Genchi G, Sinicropi MS, Lauria G, et al. The Effects of Cadmium Toxicity. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(11): 3782. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17113782

[23]Mao Q, Liu Y, Zhao Y. A review on copper alloys with high strength and high electrical conductivity. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2024; 990: 174456. doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2024.174456

[24]Henckens MLCM, Worrell E. Reviewing the availability of copper and nickel for future generations. The balance between production growth, sustainability and recycling rates. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2020; 264: 121460. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121460

[25]Comber S, Deviller G, Wilson I, et al. Sources of copper into the European aquatic environment. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management. 2023; 19(4): 1031–1047. doi: 10.1002/ieam.4700

[26]van den Berghe PV, Klomp LW. New developments in the regulation of intestinal copper absorption. Nutrition Reviews. 2009; 67(11): 658–672. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00250.x

[27]Diaz-Ochoa VE, Jellbauer S, Klaus S, Raffatellu M. Transition metal ions at the crossroads of mucosal immunity and microbial pathogenesis. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2014; 4: 2. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2014.00002

[28]Healy C, Munoz-Wolf N, Strydom J, et al. Nutritional immunity: The impact of metals on lung immune cells and the airway microbiome during chronic respiratory disease. Respiratory Research. 2021; 22(1): 133. doi: 10.1186/s12931-021-01722-y

[29]Nishito Y, Kambe T. Absorption Mechanisms of Iron, Copper, and Zinc: An Overview. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology. 2018; 64(1): 1–7. doi: 10.3177/jnsv.64.1

[30]Durmuş E, Güneysu F. Iron poisoning. Journal of Surgery and Medicine. 2020; 4(4): 314–317. doi: 10.28982/josam.619743

[31]Anderson GJ. Mechanisms of iron loading and toxicity. American Journal of Hematology. 2007; 82(S12): 1128–1131. doi: 10.1002/ajh.21075

[32]Yara S, Lavoie JC, Beaulieu JF, et al. Iron-Ascorbate-Mediated Lipid Peroxidation Causes Epigenetic Changes in the Antioxidant Defense in Intestinal Epithelial Cells: Impact on Inflammation. PLoS ONE. 2013; 8(5): e63456. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063456

[33]Wuana RA, Okieimen FE. Heavy Metals in Contaminated Soils: A Review of Sources, Chemistry, Risks and Best Available Strategies for Remediation. International Scholarly Research Notices. 2011; 2011(1): 1–20. doi: 10.5402/2011/402647

[34]Komárek M, Ettler V, Chrastný V, Mihaljevič M. Lead isotopes in environmental sciences: A review. Environment International. 2008; 34(4): 562–577. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2007.10.005

[35]Król A, Mizerna K, Bożym M. An assessment of pH-dependent release and mobility of heavy metals from metallurgical slag. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2020; 384: 121502. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121502

[36]Shukla V, Shukla P, Tiwari A. Lead poisoning. Indian Journal of Medical Specialities. 2018; 9(3): 146–149. doi: 10.1016/j.injms.2018.04.003

[37]Sokić MD, Bugarčić M, Jovanović AA. Sphalerite Leaching in Acid Media: A Review. Metallurgical and Materials Data. 2023; 1(2): 33–43. doi: 10.30544/mmd8

[38]Singh VK, Manna S, Kumar Biswas J, Pugazhendhi A. Recovery of residual metals from jarosite waste using chemical and biochemical processes to achieve sustainability: A state-of-the-art review. Journal of Environmental Management. 2023; 343: 118221. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118221

[39]Schoofs H, Schmit J, Rink L. Zinc Toxicity: Understanding the Limits. Molecules. 2024; 29(13): 3130. doi: 10.3390/molecules29133130

[40]Aggett P, Nordberg GF, Nordberg M. Essential metals: Assessing risks from deficiency and toxicity. In: Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. Elsevier; 2022. pp. 385–406.

[41]Reif BM, Murray BP. Chromium Toxicity. In: StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing; 2025.

[42]Shekhawat K, Chatterjee S, Joshi B. Chromium toxicity and its health hazards. International Journal of Advanced Research. 2015; 3(7): 167–172.

[43]Jobby R, Jha P, Yadav AK, Desai N. Biosorption and biotransformation of hexavalent chromium [Cr (VI)]: A comprehensive review. Chemosphere. 2018; 207: 255–266. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.05.050

[44]Alvarez CC, Bravo Gómez ME, Hernández Zavala A. Hexavalent chromium: Regulation and health effects. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology. 2021; 65: 126729. doi: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2021.126729

[45]Fay M. Toxicological profile for nickel. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 2005.

[46]De Macedo FG, Bresolin JD, Santos EF, et al. Nickel Availability in Soil as Influenced by Liming and Its Role in Soybean Nitrogen Metabolism. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2016; 7: 1358. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01358

[47]Genchi G, Carocci A, Lauria G, et al. Nickel: Human Health and Environmental Toxicology. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(3): 679. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17030679

[48]Buxton S, Garman E, Heim KE, et al. Concise Review of Nickel Human Health Toxicology and Ecotoxicology. Inorganics. 2019; 7(7): 89. doi: 10.3390/inorganics7070089

[49]Lee HW, Jose CC, Cuddapah S. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition: Insights into nickel-induced lung diseases. Seminars in Cancer Biology. 2021; 76: 99–109. doi: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2021.05.020

[50]Begum W, Rai S, Banerjee S, et al. A comprehensive review on the sources, essentiality and toxicological profile of nickel. RSC Advances. 2022; 12(15): 9139–9153. doi: 10.1039/d2ra00378c

[51]Kazantzis G. Mercury exposure and early effects: An overview. La Medicina del Lavoro. 2002; 93(3): 139–147.

[52]Bernhoft RA. Mercury Toxicity and Treatment: A Review of the Literature. Journal of Environmental and Public Health. 2012; 2012(1): 1–10. doi: 10.1155/2012/460508

[53]Wu YS, Osman AI, Hosny M, et al. The Toxicity of Mercury and Its Chemical Compounds: Molecular Mechanisms and Environmental and Human Health Implications: A Comprehensive Review. ACS Omega. 2024; 9(5): 5100–5126. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.3c07047

[54]Nieder R, Benbi DK. Potentially toxic elements in the environment—a review of sources, sinks, pathways and mitigation measures. Reviews on Environmental Health. 2024; 39(3): 561–575. doi: 10.1515/reveh-2022-0161

[55]Savoca D, Pace A. Bioaccumulation, Biodistribution, Toxicology and Biomonitoring of Organofluorine Compounds in Aquatic Organisms. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021; 22(12): 6276. doi: 10.3390/ijms22126276

[56]Bayabil HK, Teshome FT, Li YC. Emerging Contaminants in Soil and Water. Frontiers in Environmental Science. 2022; 10. doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2022.873499

[57]Khanieva IM, Bekuzarova SA, Abdulkhalikov RZ, et al. Bioindicators and environmental protection. In: E3S Web of Conferences. EDP Sciences; 2020.

[58]Wang X, Dan Z, Cui X, et al. Contamination, ecological and health risks of trace elements in soil of landfill and geothermal sites in Tibet. Science of The Total Environment. 2020; 715: 136639. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136639

[59]Kabir E, Ray S, Kim KH, et al. Current Status of Trace Metal Pollution in Soils Affected by Industrial Activities. The Scientific World Journal. 2012; 2012(1): 1–18. doi: 10.1100/2012/916705

[60]Madejón P, Domínguez MT, Madejón E, et al. Soil-plant relationships and contamination by trace elements: A review of twenty years of experimentation and monitoring after the Aznalcóllar (SW Spain) mine accident. Science of The Total Environment. 2018; 625: 50–63. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.277

[61]Garforth JM, Tye AM, Young SD, et al. A comparison of characterisation and modelling approaches to predict dissolved metal concentrations in soils. Wilkinson K, ed. Environmental Chemistry. 2023; 21(1). doi: 10.1071/en23075

[62]Driscoll CT, Mason RP, Chan HM, et al. Mercury as a Global Pollutant: Sources, Pathways, and Effects. Environmental Science & Technology. 2013; 47(10): 4967–4983. doi: 10.1021/es305071v

[63]Karn R, Ojha N, Abbas S, Bhugra S. A review on heavy metal contamination at mining sites and remedial techniques. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2021; 796(1): 012013. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/796/1/012013

[64]Zhang K, Chai F, Zheng Z, et al. Size distribution and source of heavy metals in particulate matter on the lead and zinc smelting affected area. Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2018; 71: 188–196. doi: 10.1016/j.jes.2018.04.018

[65]Ferrés M, Martínez-Valdebenito C, Angulo J, et al. Mother-to-Child Transmission of Andes Virus through Breast Milk, Chile. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2020; 26(8): 1885–1888. doi: 10.3201/eid2608.200204

[66]Malhotra BD, Ali MdA. Nanomaterials in Biosensors: Fundamentals and Applications. Nanomaterials for Biosensors. 2017; 1–74. doi: 10.1016/b978-0-323-44923-6.00001-7

[67]Malik S, Singh J, Goyat R, et al. Nanomaterials-based biosensor and their applications: A review. Heliyon. 2023; 9(9): e19929. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19929

[68]Chen J, Pu H, Hersam MC, Westerhoff P. Molecular Engineering of 2D Nanomaterial Field‐Effect Transistor Sensors: Fundamentals and Translation across the Innovation Spectrum. Advanced Materials. 2022; 34(3). doi: 10.1002/adma.202106975

[69]Tovar-Lopez FJ. Recent Progress in Micro- and Nanotechnology-Enabled Sensors for Biomedical and Environmental Challenges. Sensors. 2023; 23(12): 5406. doi: 10.3390/s23125406

[70]AL-Taee SK, Karam H, Ismail HK. Review On Some Heavy Metals Toxicity On Freshwater Fishes. Journal of Applied Veterinary Sciences. 2020; 5(3): 78–86. doi: 10.21608/javs.2020.100157

[71]Wang M, Chen L, Wu L, et al. Review of Nonpoint Source Pollution Models: Current Status and Future Direction. Water. 2022; 14(20): 3217. doi: 10.3390/w14203217

[72]Xie Z, Ye C, Li C hua, et al. The global progress on the non-point source pollution research from 2012 to 2021: A bibliometric analysis. Environmental Sciences Europe. 2022; 34(1): 121. doi: 10.1186/s12302-022-00699-9

[73]Dutta JC. FET-Based Biosensors (BioFETs)): Principle, Methods of Fabrication, Characteristics, and Applications. In: Advanced Materials and Techniques for Biosensors and Bioanalytical Applications. CRC Press; 2020. pp. 283–296.

[74]Falina S, Syamsul M, Rhaffor NA, et al. Ten Years Progress of Electrical Detection of Heavy Metal Ions (HMIs) Using Various Field-Effect Transistor (FET) Nanosensors: A Review. Biosensors. 2021; 11(12): 478. doi: 10.3390/bios11120478

[75]Guo W, Zhang C, Ma T, et al. Advances in aptamer screening and aptasensors’ detection of heavy metal ions. Journal of Nanobiotechnology. 2021; 19(1). doi: 10.1186/s12951-021-00914-4

[76]Nigam A, Sharma N, Tripathy S, Kumar M. Development of semiconductor based heavy metal ion sensors for water analysis: A review. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical. 2021; 330: 112879. doi: 10.1016/j.sna.2021.112879

[77]Jamkhande PG, Ghule NW, Bamer AH, Kalaskar MG. Metal nanoparticles synthesis: An overview on methods of preparation, advantages and disadvantages, and applications. Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology. 2019; 53: 101174. doi: 10.1016/j.jddst.2019.101174

[78]Darwish MA, Abd-Elaziem W, Elsheikh A, Zayed AA. Advancements in nanomaterials for nanosensors: A comprehensive review. Nanoscale Advances. 2024; 6(16): 4015–4046. doi: 10.1039/d4na00214h

[79]Jayaprakash N, Elumalai K, Manickam S, et al. Carbon nanomaterials: Revolutionizing biomedical applications with promising potential. Nano Materials Science. 2024. doi: 10.1016/j.nanoms.2024.11.004

[80]Georgakilas V, Tiwari JN, Kemp KC, et al. Noncovalent Functionalization of Graphene and Graphene Oxide for Energy Materials, Biosensing, Catalytic, and Biomedical Applications. Chemical Reviews. 2016; 116(9): 5464–5519. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00620

[81]Nandhakumar M, Thangaian DT, Kasi N. Topical progress of gold nanoparticles towards diverse metal ion sensing through optical spectrometry and electrochemical techniques—A short review. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 2023; 22: 1185–1209. doi: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.11.182

[82]Luis L. FERRITIN nanocages used as programmable bricks for biomolecular electronics. Sorbonne Université; Nanyang Technological University (Singapour). 2023.

[83]Chen X, Wang X, Lu Z, et al. Ultra-sensitive detection of Pb2+ based on DNAzymes coupling with multi-cycle strand displacement amplification (M-SDA) and nano-graphene oxide. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 2020; 311: 127898. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2020.127898

[84]Pakulski D. Graphene based materials and their potential applications. Université de Strasbourg; Uniwersytet imienia Adama Mickiewicza (Poznań, Pologne). 2019.

[85]Wei S, Dou Y, Song S, Li T. Functionalized-Graphene Field Effect Transistor-Based Biosensor for Ultrasensitive and Label-Free Detection of β-Galactosidase Produced by Escherichia coli. Biosensors. 2023; 13(10): 925. doi: 10.3390/bios13100925

[86]Nigam A, Goel N, Bhat TN, et al. Real time detection of Hg2+ ions using MoS2 functionalized AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistor for water quality monitoring. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 2020; 309: 127832. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2020.127832

[87]Yadav V, Roy S, Singh P, et al. 2D MoS2‐Based Nanomaterials for Therapeutic, Bioimaging, and Biosensing Applications. Small. 2018; 15(1). doi: 10.1002/smll.201803706

[88]Mia AK, Meyyappan M, Giri PK. Two-Dimensional Transition Metal Dichalcogenide Based Biosensors: From Fundamentals to Healthcare Applications. Biosensors. 2023; 13(2): 169. doi: 10.3390/bios13020169

[89]Zhang Y, Feng D, Xu Y, et al. DNA-based functionalization of two-dimensional MoS2 FET biosensor for ultrasensitive detection of PSA. Applied Surface Science. 2021; 548: 149169. doi: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2021.149169

[90]Fan J, Cheng Y, Sun M. Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Properties and Biomedical Applications. The Chemical Record. 2020; 20(12): 1474–1504. doi: 10.1002/tcr.202000087

[91]Zhou G. Real-Time, Selective Detection of Heavy Metal Ions in Water Using 2d Nanomaterials-based Field-effect Transistors. The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. 2017.

[92]Taleb AA. Development of environmental micro-sensors based on functionalized CVD graphene: Detection of lead in aqueous media on field effect transistor (FET) and on electrochemical sensor (French). Orléans. 2024.